Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn

In this Korean name, the family name is Ch'oe.

Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn 최충헌
Military Leader of Goryeo
Imperial Guardian
In office 1196–1219
Monarchs	Myeongjong of Goryeo Sinjong of Goryeo Huijong of Goryeo Gangjong of Goryeo Gojong of Goryeo
Preceded by	Yi Ui-min
Succeeded by	Ch'oe U
Personal details
Born	1149 Gaeseong or Gyeongju
Died	29 October 1219 (aged 70)
Spouse(s)	Lady Song Princess Jeonghwa Princess Suseong
Children	Ch'oe U Ch'oe Hyang Ch'oe Ku Unnamed son Ch'oe Seong
Parents	Choe Won-ho (father) Lady Yu (mother)

Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn
Hangul	최충헌
Hanja	崔忠獻
Revised Romanization	Choe Chung-heon
McCune–Reischauer	Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn

Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn (Korean: 최충헌; Hanja: 崔忠獻; 1149 – 29 October 1219) was a military ruler of Korea during the Goryeo period. He served as the Gyojeong Byeolgam (敎定別監). Born in 1149 (3rd year of King Uijong's reign) and died in 1219 (6th year of King Gojong's reign), he consolidated his power through purges and presented reform measures known as 'Bongsa Sipjo (封事十條)'. To suppress opposition, he strengthened private power organizations like Dobang (都房) and Gyojeong Dogam (敎定都監). His power was so immense that he replaced four kings and established a power base that maintained the Choe family's military regime for over 60 years.

Early life and Career

Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn was born in 1149, the son of Supreme General Ch'oe Wŏn-ho (최원호) and his wife, Lady Yu (유씨). He is thought to have been born in Gaeseong or Gyeongju. He was descended from the famous Confucian scholar Ch'oe Ch'i-wŏn, who lived in the North South States Period and was the ancestor of the Gyeongju Choe clan, but because Ch'oe Won-ho was given the bon-gwan of Ubong, his family split from the Gyeongju Ch'oe clan and became the Ubong Ch'oe clan. He married Lady Song, the daughter of general Song Ch'ŏng, and had two sons by her, Ch'oe U and Ch'oe Hyang.

Ch'oe entered the military, like his father, and was a colonel until he reached age 35 when he became a general. He joined the Council of Generals at age 40. Ch'oe served under the military dictators during the reign of King Myeongjong. During the rule of military dictator Yi Ui-min, Ch'oe and his brother Ch'oe Ch'ung-su became dissatisfied with his reign. Initially, he became the Ryangonryeong (良醞令) through the Eumbo (蔭補) system. In 1174 (the 4th year of King Myeongjong's reign), during Jo Wi-chong's (趙位寵) rebellion, he fought bravely under General Ki Tak-seong (奇卓誠). He was subsequently promoted to Byeolchodo-ryeong (別抄都令) and later to Seopjanggun (攝將軍).

Rise to power

In April 1196 (the 26th year of King Myeongjong's reign), one of Yi's sons, Yi Chi-yŏng, seized Ch'ung-su's chickens. When Ch'ung-su confronted the thief, he was tied up instead. The angered Ch'ung-su then plotted with his brother, Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn, and nephew, Park Jin-jae (朴晉材), to overthrow Yi Ui-min's regime. Choe Ch'ung-hŏn assassinated Yi Ui-min (李義旼) at the Mitasan (彌陀山) villa. They then raced for the capital and managed to convince General Paek Chon-yu (백존유; 白存儒), a military officer in the capital, to support his cause. He then massacred or exiled numerous civil and military officials identified as Yi Ui-min's followers and seized power. To justify these actions, he reported to the king:

"The treacherous Yi Ui-min committed the crime of regicide, oppressed and harmed the people, and even coveted the throne. We have long despised him and now, for the sake of the state, have defeated him. However, fearing the leak of our plans, we did not seek royal permission, for which we are gravely guilty."

— Choe Ch'ung-hŏn

With the King's approval, Choe led the government forces and defeated the armies of the Yi loyalists. As a military officer who had not participated in the previous army coup, Choi Chung-heon faced potential backlash from other military officials. To legitimize his rule, he and his brother Choi Chung-su submitted a reform proposal called the Bongsasipjo (封事十條), which included the following points:

1. The king should return to the main palace.
2. Reduce the number of unnecessary officials.
3. Correct land ownership issues.
4. Levy taxes fairly.
5. Prohibit tribute to the royal family.
6. Regulate monks and prohibit usury by the royal family.
7. Appoint honest local officials.
8. Prohibit the extravagance of officials and promote frugality.
9. Abolish temples except for essential ones.
10. Criticize flattery among officials and promote capable individuals.

The beginning of this reform proposal justified the assassination of Yi Ui-min. Choi Chung-heon and his brother argued that they killed Yi Ui-min for his crimes against the state and threats to the people. They consolidated power by eliminating the ruling military faction following the military coup.

In 1197 (the 27th year of King Myeongjong's reign), Choi Chung-heon was granted the title of Chungseongjari Gongsin (忠誠佐理功臣), and his father was given the title Bonguichandeok Gongsin Su Taewi Munhasirang (奉議贊德功臣 守太尉 門下侍郞). In September of that year, citing the king's failure to implement the Bongsasipjo and waste of state treasury, he confined the king to Changrak Palace (昌樂宮). He installed his younger brother Sinjong (神宗).

Under King Sinjong, Choi Chung-heon was appointed Jeongguk Gongsin Samhan Daegwang Daejung Daebu Sangjanggun Juguk (靖國功臣 三韓大匡 大中大夫 上將軍 柱國), and his father received the title Yeongryeol U Seong Gongsin Samjung Daegwang Munhasijung (英烈佑聖功臣 三重大匡 門下侍中). This established the Choi family's military rule.

Dictator

Choi Chung-heon purged 50 close associates of the king, rose to various high-ranking positions, and in 1200 (the 3rd year of King Sinjong's reign), established a personal guard unit based on Kyŏng Tae-sŭng's bodyguards, the Tobang (都房), consisting of influential men from both civil and military ranks. Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn started to reorganize the government, but Ch'ung-su unseated the Crown Princess and tried to marry his daughter to the Crown Prince. Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn immediately intervened, and a bloody struggle between the Ch'oe brothers ensued. In the end, Chung-su lost and was beheaded by Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn's troops. Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn was said to have wept when he saw his brother's head and gave him a proper burial.

In 1201 (the 4th year of King Sinjong's reign), he became Chumilwonsa Ibyeongbusangseo Eosadaebu (樞密院使 吏兵部尙書 御史大夫). In 1202 (the 5th year of King Sinjong's reign), he took over civil and military personnel administration from his residence. Ch'oe established a government where he could work with ministers and military officials to stabilize his regime. He also appointed several relatives to high government positions to slowly expand his power. By 1203 (the 6th year of King Sinjong's reign), he was appointed Jungseo Sirang Pyeongjangsa Ibyeongsangseo Taesasa (中書侍郎 平章事 吏部尙書 太子少師).

In 1204 (the 7th year of King Sinjong's reign), King Sejong fell ill 1204 and secretly begged Ch'oe to preserve and not overthrow the kingdom. Ch'oe respected this last request from the king and gave the throne to Sinjong's son, who became King Huijong. Sinjong died of disease immediately after that he deposed King Sinjong and installed King Huijong (熙宗), becoming Byeoksang Samhan Samjung Daegwang Gaebu I Dong Samsa Su Taesa Munhasirang Dong Jungseo Munha Pyeongjangsa Sangjanggun Sangjuguk Panbyeongbu Eosadaesa Taesasa (壁上三韓三重大匡 開府儀同三司 守太師 門下侍郎同中書門下平章事 上將軍 上柱國 判兵部御史臺事 太子太師). The king treated him with particular respect, calling him Eunmun Sangguk (恩門相國).

In 1205 (the 1st year of King Huijong's reign), Choi Chung-heon was granted 100 plots of land, the title Teukjin Humoe Il Deok Ansa Jese Gongsin (特進 訏謀 逸德 安社 濟世 功臣), and the office of Prime Minister (Munhasijung (門下侍中)). He was given the title Jinganggun Gaegukhui (晋康郡 開國侯) with 3,000 households and 300 practical plots. The following year, he became Jinganghu (晋康侯) and established Heungnyeongbu (興寧府). Huijong was determined to retrieve all the former powers that military dictators and usurpers had taken from the kings, including by removing Ch'oe. Ch'oe had been given the State and Royal Protector rank, with power equivalent to the kings.

In 1207 (the 3rd year of King Huijong's reign), he was given the title Jinganggong (晋康公). Simultaneously, Choe appointed Yi Gyu-bo (李奎報) to revive the declining literary fortune.

Rebellions

In 1207, Pak Chin-jae rebelled against his uncle, but Choe crushed him, exiled Park Jin-Jae to Baekryeongjin (白翎鎭), and banished many of Park's followers for rebelling against him. (박진재; 朴晋材)

There was resistance centered around Gyeongju, which was significant as it was a "Silla Revival Movement" (신라부흥운동) that outright denied the legitimacy of the dynasty. This movement shocked the ruling military factions and the general ruling class and posed a substantial obstacle to Choi Chung-heon's regime. Therefore, following a harsh suppression of the Gyeongju area, they established an even stronger control structure than the previous military regimes. As a result, local resistance gradually diminished during King Huijong's reign.

This was followed by the Slave rebellion, led by one of Ch'oe's slaves, Manjeok. The enslaved people killed their masters and gathered on a mountain, around 100 strong. This rebel army was quickly terminated, and the bodies of the dead were thrown into a river, unburied. More rebellions occurred, including by Buddhist priests. Ch'oe was not able to completely silence the Buddhists, but he did capture the individual Buddhists who were behind a plot to assassinate him.

Assassination Attempts

In 1209 (the 5th year of King Huijong's reign), an assassination attempt by three clerks at Cheonggyo Station (靑郊驛) was uncovered. Choi Chung-heon established the Gyojeongdogam (敎定都監) at Yeongeungwan (迎恩館) to eliminate the conspirators. This office later became the highest authority under the Choi regime, controlling personnel, inspections, and taxation, with Choi Chung-heon as its head.

In 1211 (the 7th year of King Huijong's reign), he narrowly escaped death due to a plot by palace official Wang Jun-myeong (王濬明), thanks to his guards. He deposed King Huijong and exiled him to Ganghwa, installing King Gangjong (康宗).

Consolidation

In 1212 (the 1st year of King Gangjong's reign), he renamed Heungnyeongbu to Jingangbu (晋康府) and was honored as Mungyeong Muwi Hyangri Jo an Gongsin (文經 武緯 嚮里措安功臣). In 1213, Gangjong died and Choe installed Gojong. In 1214 (the 1st year of King Gojong's reign), Choi Chung-heon's wife, Lady Im, became Suseongtaekju (綬成宅主), and Lady Wang became Jeonghwataekju (靜和宅主).

To firmly maintain his regime, Choi Chung-heon reorganized the ruling apparatus, expanding private ruling bodies such as the Gyojeongdogam (教定都監), Seobang (書房), Jeongbang (政房), Dobang (都房), and private soldiers (Gabyeong, 家兵). These organizations prioritized the prosperity of Choi Chung-heon's regime over maintaining state power. As Choi Chung-heon undermined the existing bureaucratic system to establish a framework for his one-person dictatorship, he required substantial human and material resources. After 1216 (the 3rd year of King Gojong's reign), the economic impoverishment that had accumulated until then led to a resurgence of local resistance, triggered by the invasion of the Khitan remnants (거란유종, 契丹遺種).

Khitan Invasion

During this time, various northern tribes, including the Khitans, were being driven from their homelands by the Mongols. Many escaped to Goryeo, and violence flared along the northern border. Ch'oe's sons, U and Hyang, led separate campaigns in response. Hyang defeated the minor tribal armies to the east, and U defeated those in the west with the help of General Kim Ch'wi-ryŏ (김취려; 金就礪). Small contingents of the Mongols aided these victories.

In 1218 (the 5th year of King Gojong's reign), at 70, he was granted a staff. In 1219 (the 6th year of King Gojong's reign), King Gojong gave him the surname Wang (王).

Succession

Ch'oe witnessed the downfall of Chŏng Chung-bu's regime, partially caused by the lack of a strong legitimate heir. Ch'oe's first son, Ch'oe U, was an influential strategist, soldier, and leader. The second son, Ch'oe Hyang, was an exceptional soldier but not a good negotiator or statesman.

Knowing a succession fight would ensue, Ch'oe forbade U to enter the house. Hyang attempted to kill his brother to cement his position as a successor. U and Hyang fought a sword battle, which U won. U did not kill his brother as his father had done to Ch'ung-su. Instead, he left his younger brother's fate in his father's hands.

Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn was pleased by U's decision and sent his younger son into exile. Ch'oe announced that he would be succeeded by his son, Woo, and that he would retire. He was around 65 when he made this announcement, and U was probably in his mid-thirties.

Death

Ch'oe lived peacefully for the remaining seven years of his life and even got to see his grandson Hang, son of U. Ch'oe, who survived several attempts on his life. He suffered a stroke and lived for one more year before he died at the age of 71 on 29 October 1219. It is recorded that his funeral was like that of a king's.

Legacy

What was different from former military leaders was the active involvement of scholars in Ch'oe's control, notably Prime Minister Yi Kyu-bo, who was a Confucian scholar-official. After Sinjong died, Ch'oe forced his son to the throne as Huijong. After seven years, Huijong led a revolt but failed. Then, Ch'oe found the pliable King Gojong instead. Although the House of Ch'oe established strong private individuals loyal to it, continuous invasion by the Mongols ravaged the whole land, resulting in a weakened defense ability, and the power of the military regime waned.

Choi Chung-heon seized power by eliminating Yi Ui-min and his faction due to the political instability during King Myeongjong's reign and the resistance from local societies, which created a conducive social atmosphere. To renew this social atmosphere, Choi Chung-heon presented the "Ten Reform Proposals" (Bongsasipjo). Internally, he aimed to stabilize the regime by dispelling the frequent political upheavals and the alliances and divisions among military factions under King Myeongjong. Externally, his goal was to quell the unrest in local societies. However, Choi Chung-heon's regime was essentially a continuation of the previous military regimes, showcasing the characteristics of a new oppressor.

Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn was the first of the Ch'oe dictators, and he set up the system of rule that the later Ch'oe dictators would use after Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn was his first son Ch'oe U, who led the armies of Goryeo to fight the Mongol armies. After Ch'oe U came to his first son Ch'oe Hang, who forced the king to reject all offers of surrender that the Mongols offered. When Ch'oe Hang died, his only son Ch'oe Ŭi came to power.

The Ch'oe regime lasted 60 years, during which Goryeo could resist the Mongol invasions. After the fall of the Ch'oe military regime, the Sambyeolcho, which was the private army of the Ch'oe family, separated from the Goryeo government and attempted to start its nation, but this rebellion was defeated by a Mongol-Goryeo army.

Approximately 845 Koreans today are members of the Ubong Ch'oe clan.

Family

• Father: Ch'oe Won-ho (최원호)
• Mother: Lady Yu (부인 유씨)
  • Brother: Ch'oe Ch'ung-su (최충수; 1151–1197)
  • Sister: Lady Ch'oe (부인 최씨)
    • Nephew: Park Jin-jae (박진재; 1165–1207)
• Wives and their issue(s):
  • Lady Song (부인 송씨); daughter of Song Ch'ŏng (송청)
    • Ch'oe U (1166 – 10 December 1249), first son
    • Ch'oe Hyang (1167–1230), second son
    • Lady Ch'oe (부인 최씨), first daughter
  • Princess Jeonghwa of the Kaesong Wang clan, daughter of King Gangjong of Goryeo.
    • Ch'oe Ku (최구), third son
    • Mr. Ch'oe (최씨), fourth son
  • Princess Suseong of the Jangheung Im clan (수성택주 임씨); daughter of Im Pu (임부).
    • Ch'oe Seong (최성), fifth son
  • Ja Un-seon (자운선)

Title

• Early title: 別抄都令 -> 攝將軍
• 1196: The title of 左承宣 御史臺知事 was added.
• 1197: The title of 靖國功臣 三韓大匡大中大夫 上將軍柱國 was added.
• 1204: The title of 壁上三韓三重大匡 開府儀同三司守太師 門下侍郞同中書門下平章事 上將軍上柱國 兵部御史臺判事 太子太師 was added. Just a few days later 晋康郡候 門下侍中 was additionally added.
• 1212: The title of 晋康府候 文經武緯嚮理措安功臣 was added.

Popular culture

• Portrayed by Kim Kap-soo and Ryu Deok-hwan in the 2003–2004 KBS1 TV series Age of Warriors.
• Portrayed by Joo Hyun in the 2012 MBC TV series God of War.

See also

• History of Korea
• List of Goryeo people

Sources

• Shultz, Edward J. (2000). Generals and Scholars: Military Rule in Medieval Korea. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press. ISBN 0-8248-2324-9. S. 70-82