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History of theology

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The history of theology has manifestations in many different cultures and religious traditions.

Terminology and connotations[edit]

Plato (left) and Aristotle in Raphael's 1509 fresco The School of Athens

Plato used the Greek word theologia (θεολογία) with the meaning "discourse on god" around 380 BCE in Republic, Book ii, Ch. 18 (379a).[1] Aristotle (384–322 BCE) divided theoretical philosophy into mathematike, physike and theologike, with the last corresponding roughly to metaphysics, which, for Aristotle, included discourse on the nature of the divine.[2]

In patristic Greek Christian sources, theologia could refer narrowly to devout and inspired knowledge of, and teaching about, the essential nature of God.[3]

The Latin author Boethius, writing in the early 6th century, used theologia to denote a subdivision of philosophy as a subject of academic study, dealing with the motionless, incorporeal reality (as opposed to physica, which deals with corporeal, moving realities).[4] Boethius' definition influenced medieval Latin usage.[5]

In the Renaissance, especially with Florentine Platonist apologists of Dante's poetics, the distinction between "poetic theology" ( theologia poetica) and "revealed" or Biblical theology served as a steppingstone for a revival of philosophy as independent of theological authority.

It is in this[which?] last sense - theology as an academic discipline involving the basis of rational study of Christian teaching - that the term passed into English in the fourteenth century,[6] although it could also be used in the narrower sense found in Boethius and the Greek patristic authors, to mean rational study of the essential nature of God – a discourse now sometimes called theology proper.[7]

From the 17th century onwards, it also became possible to use the term "theology" to refer to study of religious ideas and teachings that are not specifically Christian (e.g., in the term natural theology which denoted theology based on reasoning from natural facts independent of specifically Christian revelation[8]) or that are specific to another religion.

"Theology" can also now be used in a derived sense to mean "a system of theoretical principles; an (impractical or rigid) ideology".[9]

Theological development[edit]

Indian theology[edit]

The earliest theological reflections in Hinduism are found in the Rg Veda, the oldest sacred text. Here, an abstract Supreme Being is acknowledged as self-originating and the source of all phenomena[10]. Vedic gods, including Indra, Varuna, and Vishnu, share common characteristics. They are said to have created the universe, set the sun in the sky, and propped apart heaven and earth. These gods are susceptible to human praise, and their personifications vary[11].

Hindu theology embraces panentheism, believing that the Supreme Soul (Parmatma) both transcends and pervades the universe. This underlying principle unifies the diverse pantheon of gods and goddesses. While Hinduism appears polytheistic due to its many deities, it is essentially monotheistic, recognising the unity of the divine[12].

The Bhakti movement (medieval period) emphasized intense devotion to a personal deity. Bhakti theologians like Ramanuja, Madhva, and Chaitanya advocated for loving surrender to God. Devotional texts, such as the Bhagavad Gita and the Ramayana, shaped theological thought by emphasizing devotion, ethics, and the pursuit of moksha (liberation)[13].

Shankara, the founder of Advaita Vedanta, expounded non-dualism (advaita) by asserting that the individual soul (jivatman) is identical to the Supreme Soul (Brahman). This philosophical theology influenced Hindu thought, emphasizing self-realization and the illusory nature of the material world[14].

In contemporary Hinduism, theologians engage with issues like social justice, environmental ethics, and interfaith dialogue. Theological reflection continues to evolve, drawing from ancient texts, philosophical traditions, and the lived experiences of practitioners[15].

Main article: Hindu theology

Christian theology[edit]

Main article: History of Christian theology

Christian theology, in scholastics of the Middle Age regarded as "the queen of sciences"[16] first developed on the bases of Judaism and of Greek thought. Initially concerned with shaping and defining the new faith of the followers of Jesus of Nazareth, theological thinkers moved into issues of establishing church government and of preserving doctrinal unity ("orthodoxy") by identifying and condemning heresies. The definitive establishment of a canon of scripture became important; and as Christianity moved into a role as a state religion in the 4th century (in Armenia, in the Roman Empire, and in Ethiopia), the working out of relationships with secular authority became important.

The 16th-century Protestant reformation, in the spirit of Renaissance humanism, paid great attention to the study of biblical text, accompanied by outbursts of popular theology in personal religious fervor[17] and by the refinement of rigorous systematic theology. The resulting tradition of multiple Christian sects served as a background to revivals in the 18th and 19th centuries, when some of the old "heresies" (such as Arianism and other non-Trinitarian beliefs), once apparently stamped out by the earlier ecclesiastical authorities, received more attention and sometimes became elements in further schisms.

Recent Christian theological movements include Liberation theology, liberal theology, and fundamentalism.

Islamic theology[edit]

During the formative and early middle periods, various theological strands emerged within Islam. Rationalist approaches (such as Mu'tazilism) engaged with reason and logic, while scripturalist schools (like Ash'arism and Maturidism) emphasized adherence to the Quran and Hadith. Interactions between these strands led to debates on issues like free will, predestination, and the nature of God. Scholars like Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, and Ibn Sina (Avicenna) played pivotal roles in integrating Greek philosophy with Islamic thought.

In the later middle and early modern periods, theology merged with philosophy (Peripatetic and Illuminationist) and mysticism (Sufism). This fusion enriched theological discourse and explored mystical experiences, divine love, and the quest for spiritual truth. Notable figures include Al-Ghazali, Ibn Rushd (Averroes), and Ibn Arabi, who navigated the intersections of theology, philosophy, and mysticism.

Political events influenced theological debates. The mihna (inquisition) under al-Ma'mūn tested scholars' loyalty to rationalism, and Ibn Aqīl faced a similar trial. The Almohad dynasty shaped theological thought, and interpretations of Ash'arism and Māturidism shifted during Mamluk and Ottoman eras, often driven by political motives.

From the late 19th century onward, Islamic theology adapted to changing contexts. Scholars in Arab countries, Turkey, Iran, India, Central Asia, and Indonesia, explored diverse theological perspectives. Modern theologians grappled with issues like secularism, pluralism, and the compatibility of Islamic teachings with contemporary life[18].

Main article: Islamic theology

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon
  2. ^ Aristotle, Metaphysics, Book Epsilon. Archived 16 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  3. ^ Gregory of Nazianzus uses the word in this sense in his fourth-century Theological Orations Archived 2006-08-07 at the Wayback Machine; after his death, he was called "the Theologian" at the 451 Council of Chalcedon and thereafter in Eastern Orthodoxy—either because his Orations were seen as crucial examples of this kind of theology, or in the sense that he was (like the author of the Book of Revelation) seen as one who was an inspired preacher of the words of God. (It is unlikely to mean, as claimed in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers Archived 2006-07-16 at the Wayback Machine introduction to his Theological Orations, that he was a defender of the divinity of Christ the Word.) See John McGukin, Saint Gregory of Nazianzus: An Intellectual Biography (Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 2001), p.278.
  4. ^ "Boethius, On the Holy Trinity" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-11-11.
  5. ^ G.R. Evans, Old Arts and New Theology: The Beginnings of Theology as an Academic Discipline (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980), 31–32.
  6. ^ See the 'note' in the Oxford English Dictionary entry for 'theology'.
  7. ^ See, for example, Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, vol. 1, part 1 (1871).
  8. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, sense 1
  9. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 1989 edition, 'Theology' sense 1(d), and 'Theological' sense A.3; the earliest reference given is from the 1959 Times Literary Supplement 5 June 329/4: "The 'theological' approach to Soviet Marxism ... proves in the long run unsatisfactory."
  10. ^ academic.oup.com https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34452/chapter-abstract/292331193?redirectedFrom=fulltext. Retrieved 2024-07-06. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  11. ^ "Hinduism - Beliefs, Gods, Dharma | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2024-07-02. Retrieved 2024-07-06.
  12. ^ "Theology". Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2024-07-06.
  13. ^ "Hinduism - Beliefs, Gods, Dharma | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2024-07-02. Retrieved 2024-07-06.
  14. ^ "Hinduism - Beliefs, Gods, Dharma | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2024-07-02. Retrieved 2024-07-06.
  15. ^ Athyal, Jesudas (2023-08-10). "Theology in India". St Andrews Encyclopaedia of Theology.
  16. ^ Zakai, Avihu (22 July 2010). "Regina Scientiarum - Theology as the 'Queen of Sciences'". Jonathan Edwards's Philosophy of Nature: The Re-enchantment of the World in the Age of Scientific Reasoning. T & T Clark theology. London: A&C Black (published 2010). p. 56. ISBN 9780567226501. Retrieved 19 July 2021. [...] in the medieval scholastic world, theology was defined as the "Queen of Sciences" [...].
  17. ^ Whitney, James Pounder (1907). The History of the Reformation (reprint ed.). S.P.C.K. (published 1958). p. 36. Retrieved 19 July 2021. In the Middle Ages, as at all times, popular theology had on many points outrun authorised theology: the fifteenth century was overladen both in bold speculations and practical details by the results of past generations.
  18. ^ academic.oup.com https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34345/chapter/291409569. Retrieved 2024-07-06. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

External links[edit]

Library resources about
History of theology
Look up theology in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiversity has learning resources about School:Theology
Wikiquote has quotations related to theology.


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