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Religion in Africa

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Religion in Africa (2020 estimate)[1]

  Christianity (49.3%)
  Islam (41.5%)
  Traditional faiths (7.9%)
  None / Other (1.3%)

Religion in Africa is multifaceted and has been a major influence on art, culture and philosophy. Today, the continent's various populations and individuals are mostly adherents of Christianity, Islam, and to a lesser extent several traditional African religions.[2] In Christian or Islamic communities, religious beliefs are also sometimes characterized with syncretism with the beliefs and practices of traditional religions.[3][4][5]

Traditional African religions

Main article: Traditional African religions
A Vodun altar in Abomey, Benin
An early 20th-century Yoruba divination board

Africa encompasses a wide variety of traditional beliefs.[6] Although religious customs are sometimes shared by many local societies, they are usually unique to specific populations or geographic regions.[7] All traditional African religions are united by a shared animistic core with special importance to ancestor worship.[8]

According to Dr J Omosade Awolalu, The "olden" in this context means indigenous, that which is foundational, handed down from generation to generation, meant as to be upheld and practised today and forevermore. A heritage from the past, yet not treated as a thing of the past but that which connects the past with the present and the present with eternity.[5]

Often spoken of in the terms of a singularity, deliberate; yet conscious of the fact that Africa is a large continent with multitudes of nations who have complex cultures, innumerable languages and myriad dialects.[clarification needed][5]

West African

The essence of this school of thought is based mainly on oral transmission; that which is written in people's hearts, minds, oral history, customs, temples and religious functions.[9] It has no founders or leaders like Gautama Buddha, Jesus, or Muhammed.[10] It has no missionaries or the intent to propagate or to proselytise.[11] Some of the African traditional religions are those of the Serer of Senegal, the Yoruba of Nigeria, and the Akan of Ghana and the Ivory Coast, and the Bono of Ghana and Ivory Coast. The western coast is also consisted of the Yoruba and Anglican religion of syncretism.[12] The religion of the Gbe peoples (mostly the Ewe and Fon) of Benin, Togo and Ghana is called Vodun and is the main source for similarly named religions in the diaspora, such as Louisiana Voodoo, Haitian Vodou, Cuban Vodú, Dominican Vudú and Brazilian Vodum.

Some distinctions between West African and East or Hornn religion often includes considering the supernatural and natural or tangible as being one and the same, and using this stance to incorporate divination. Clergymen from this region who would historically catechize to the masses was often referred to as waganga.[13] Another distinction of East African and Horners is the greater prevalence of prophets within the oral traditionas and other forms of generational transmissions of traditional African religion.[14]

The most prominent indigenous deity among Cushitic Horners is Waaq, which continues to be manifested into the modern era with religions such as Waaqeffanna and Waaqism.[15] According to the author Lugira, the Traditional African religions are the only religions "that can claim to have originated in Africa. Other religions found in Africa have their origins in other parts of the world."[16]

Abrahamic religions

The majority of Africans are adherents of Christianity or Islam. African people often combine the practice of their traditional belief with the practice of Abrahamic religions.[17][18][19][20][21] Abrahamic religions are widespread throughout Africa. They have both spread and replaced indigenous African religions, but are often adapted to African cultural contexts and belief systems. The World Book Encyclopedia has estimated that in 2002 Christians formed 45% of the continent's population, with Muslims forming 40%. It was also estimated in 2002 that Christians form 45% of Africa's population, with Muslims forming 40.6%.[22]

Christianity

Main article: Christianity in Africa
The Hanging Church of Cairo, Egypt.

Christianity is the most widely practiced religions along with Islam and is the largest religion in Sub-Saharan Africa. Several syncretistic and messianic sects have formed throughout much of the continent, including the Nazareth Baptist Church in South Africa and the Aladura churches in Nigeria. There is also fairly widespread populations of Seventh-day Adventists and Jehovah's Witnesses. The oldest Christian denominations in Africa are the Eastern Orthodox Church of Alexandria, the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, and the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church (which rose to prominence in the fourth century AD after King Ezana the Great made Ethiopia one of the first Christian nations.[23])

In the first few centuries of Christianity, Africa produced many figures who had a major influence outside the continent, including St Augustine of Hippo, St Maurice, Origen, Tertullian, and three Roman Catholic popes (Victor I, Miltiades and Gelasius I), as well as the Biblical characters Simon of Cyrene and the Ethiopian eunuch baptised by Philip the Evangelist. Christianity existed in Ethiopia before the rule of King Ezana the Great of the Kingdom of Axum, but the religion grasped a strong foothold when it was declared a state religion in 330 AD, becoming one of the first Christian nations.[24]

The earliest and best known reference to the introduction of Christianity to Africa is mentioned in the Christian Bible's Acts of the Apostles, and pertains to the evangelist Phillip's conversion of an Ethiopian traveller in the 1st century AD. Although the Bible refers to them as Ethiopians, scholars have argued that Ethiopia was a common term encompassing the area South-Southeast of Egypt.

Other traditions have the convert as a Jew who was a steward in the Queen's court.[clarification needed] All accounts do agree on the fact that the traveller was a member of the royal court who successfully succeeded in converting the Queen, which in turn caused a church to be built. Tyrannius Rufinus, a noted church historian, also recorded a personal account as do other church historians such as Socrates and Sozemius.[25]

Some experts predict the shift of Christianity's center from the European industrialized nations to Africa and Asia in modern times. Yale University historian Lamin Sanneh stated, that "African Christianity was not just an exotic, curious phenomenon in an obscure part of the world, but that African Christianity might be the shape of things to come."[26] The statistics from the World Christian Encyclopedia (David Barrett) illustrate the emerging trend of dramatic Christian growth on the continent and supposes, that in 2025 there will be 633 million Christians in Africa.[27]

A 2015 study estimates 2,161,000 Christian believers from a Muslim background in Africa, most of them belonging to some form of Protestantism.[28]

Islam

Main article: Islam in Africa
Further information: History of Islam § Islam in Africa
The Great Mosque of Kairouan, erected in 670 by the Arab general Uqba Ibn Nafi, is the oldest mosque in North Africa.[29] Kairouan, Tunisia.
Abuja National Mosque in Nigeria.

Islam is the other major religion in Africa alongside Christianity,[30] with over 40% of the population being Muslim, accounting for about one fourth of the world's Muslim population. The faith's historic roots on the continent stem from the time of Muhammad, whose early disciples migrated to Abyssinia (hijira) in fear of persecution from the pagan Arabs.

The spread of Islam in North Africa came with the expansion of Arab empire under Caliph Umar, through the Sinai Peninsula. The spread of Islam in West Africa was through Islamic traders and sailors. The religion had also began influencing Harla Kingdom in the Horn of Africa early on.

Islam is the dominant religion in North Africa and the Horn of Africa. It has also become the predominant religion on the Swahili Coast as well as the West African seaboard and parts of the interior. There have been several Muslim empires in Western Africa which exerted considerable influence, notably the Mali Empire, which flourished for several centuries and the Songhai Empire, under the leadership of Mansa Musa, Sunni Ali and Askia Mohammed.

Africa by Muslim percentage

The vast majority of Muslims in Africa are followers of Sunni Islam.[31][32] There are also small minorities of other sects.[33][34]

Judaism

Main article: Judaism in Africa

Adherents of Judaism can be found scattered in a number of countries across Africa; including North Africa, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Cameroon, Gabon, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone, Nigeria and Southern Africa.

Baháʼí Faith

Main article: Baháʼí Faith in Africa
Baháʼí House of Worship, Kampala, Uganda.

The Baháʼí Faith in Africa has a diverse history. It especially had wide-scale growth in the 1950s which extended further in the 1960s.[35] The Association of Religion Data Archives (relying on World Christian Encyclopedia) lists many large and smaller populations of Baháʼís in Africa[36] with Kenya (#3: 512,900), the Democratic Republic of the Congo (#5: 282,900), South Africa (#8: 238,500) and Zambia (#10: 190,400) among the top ten numerical populations of Baháʼís in the world in 2010, and Mauritius (#4: 1.8% of population) joining Zambia (#3: 1.8%) and Kenya (#10: 1.0%) in the top ten in terms of percentage of the national population.

All three individual heads of the religion, Bahá'u'lláh, `Abdu'l-Bahá, and Shoghi Effendi, were in Africa at various times. More recently the roughly 2000[37] Baháʼís of Egypt have been embroiled in the Egyptian identification card controversy from 2006[38] through 2009.[39] Since then there have been homes burned down and families driven out of towns.[40] On the other hand, Sub-Saharan Baháʼís were able to mobilize for nine regional conferences called for by the Universal House of Justice 20 October 2008 to celebrate recent achievements in grassroots community-building and to plan their next steps in organizing in their home areas.[41]

Hinduism

Main article: Hinduism in Africa
A Hindu Temple in Durban, South Africa.
Ganga Talao in Mauritius

Hinduism has existed in Africa mainly since the late 19th century. There are an estimated 2-2.5 million adherents of Hinduism in Africa. It is the largest religion in Mauritius,[42] and several other countries have Hindu temples. Hindus came to South Africa as indentured laborers in the 19th century. The young M.K. Gandhi lived and worked among the Indian community in South Africa for twenty years before returning to India to participate in India's freedom movement.[43]

Buddhism and folk religions

Nan Hua Temple in Bronkhorstspruit, South Africa.
Main article: Buddhism in Africa

Buddhism is a tiny religion in Africa with around 250,000 practicing adherents,[44] and up to nearly 400,000[45] if combined with Taoism and Chinese Folk Religion as a common traditional religion of mostly new Chinese migrants (significant minority in Mauritius, Réunion, and South Africa). About half of African Buddhists are now living in South Africa, while Mauritius has the highest Buddhist percentage in the continent, between 1.5%[46] to 2%[47] of the total population.

Other religions

Other faiths are practiced in Africa, including Sikhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism and Rastafari among others.[48]

Irreligion

Main article: Irreligion in Africa

A Gallup poll found[when?] that the irreligious comprise 20% in South Africa, 16% in Botswana, 13% in Mozambique, 13% in Togo, 12% in Ivory Coast, 10% in Ethiopia and Angola, 9% in Sudan, Zimbabwe and Algeria, 8% in Namibia and 7% in Madagascar.[49]

Syncretism

Syncretism is the combining of different (often contradictory) beliefs, often while melding practices of various schools of thought. In the commonwealth of Africa syncretism with indigenous beliefs is practiced throughout the region. It is believed by some to explain religious tolerance between different groups.[50] Kwesi Yankah and John Mbiti argue that many African peoples today have a 'mixed' religious heritage to try to reconcile traditional religions with Abrahamic faiths.[51][52]

Jesse Mugambi claims that the Christianity taught to Africans by missionaries had a fear of syncretism, which was carried on by current African Christian leadership in an attempt to keep Christianity "pure."[53] Syncretism in Africa is said by others to be overstated,[54] and due to a misunderstanding of the abilities of local populations to form their own orthodoxies and also confusion over what is culture and what is religion.[citation needed] Others state that the term syncretism is a vague one,[55] since it can be applied to refer to substitution or modification of the central elements of Christianity or Islam with beliefs or practices from somewhere else.

The consequences under this definition, according to missiologist Keith Ferdinando, are a fatal compromise of the religion's integrity. However, communities in Africa (e.g. Afro-Asiatic) have many common practices which are also found in Abrahamic faiths, and thus these traditions do not fall under the category of some definitions of syncretism.[56]

Religious distribution by country

Northern Africa

Country Population Christian Muslim Irreligion Hindu Buddhist Folk religion Other religion Jewish
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Algeria Algeria 43,851,044 419,570 1.00 43,734,560 98.00 354,700 1.8 0 0.00 0 0.00 10,000 0.20 0 0.00 140,000 0.33
Egypt Egypt 81,120,000 9,486,120 11.20 76,982,880 88.90 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 1,000 0.10
Libya Libya 6,360,000 171,720 2.70 6,143,760 96.60 12,720 0.20 0 0.00 19,080 0.30 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Morocco Morocco 31,950,000 20,000 0.06 31,918,050 99.90 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 3,200 0.01 2,200 0.04
Sudan Sudan 33,600,000 1,814,400 5.40 30,475,200 90.70 336,000 1.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 940,800 2.80 0 0.00 0 0.00
Tunisia Tunisia 10,480,000 20,960 0.20 10,427,600 99.50 20,960 0.20 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 1,100 0.10

Eastern Africa

Country Population Christian Muslim Irreligion Hindu Buddhist Folk religion Other religion Jewish
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Burundi Burundi 13,162,955 12,294,199 93.40 276,422 2.10 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 477,960 5.70 0 0.00 0 0.00
Comoros Comoros 730,620 5,000 0.20 725,620 99.80 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 000 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Djibouti Djibouti 893,450 20,470 2.30 862,410 96.90 1,780 0.20 0 0.00 0 0.00 2,670 0.30 0 0.00 1,780 0.20
Eritrea Eritrea 5,250,000 2,625,000 50.00 2,520,000 48.00 5,250 0.10 0 0.00 0 0.00 21,000 0.40 0 0.00 0 0.00
Ethiopia Ethiopia 126,527,060 85,152,711 67.3 39,602,969 31.3 50,000 0.06 0 0.00 0 0.00 2,156,700 2.60 0 0.00 25,000 1.00
Kenya Kenya[57] 47,564,296 44,667,473 85.5 5,184,508 10.9 761,029 1.60 61,834 0.13 N/A N/A 323,437 0.68 546,989 1.15 N/A N/A
Madagascar Madagascar 28,812,195 24,403,929 84.7 893,178 3.1 1,428,990 6.90 10,000 0.05 0 0.00 931,950 4.50 20,000 0.10 0 0.00
Malawi Malawi[58] 17,563,749 13,581,623 77.33 2,426,754 13.82 376,784 2.15 3,211 0.02 5,506 0.03 186,284 1.06 983,587 5.60 N/A N/A
Mauritius Mauritius 1,235,260 328,900 25.30 217,100 16.70 7,800 0.60 733,200 56.40 0 0.00 9,100 0.70 3,900 0.30 0 0.00
Mayotte Mayotte 200,000 1,400 0.70 197,200 98.60 400 0.20 0 0.00 0 0.00 1,000 0.50 0 0.00 0 0.00
Mozambique Mozambique 34,173,805 21,187,759 62.00 6,493,022 19.00 4,186,810 17.90 0 0.00 0 0.00 1,730,860 7.40 0 0.00 0 0.00
Réunion Reunion 850,000 744,600 87.60 35,700 4.20 17,000 2.00 38,250 4.50 1,700 0.20 3,400 0.40 9,350 1.10 0 0.00
Rwanda Rwanda 13,400,541 12,569,707 93.80 294,811 2.20 382,320 3.60 0 0.00 0 0.00 106,200 1.00 21,240 0.20 0 0.00
Seychelles Seychelles 90,000 84,600 94.00 1,038 1.10 1,890 2.10 1,890 2.10 0 0.00 0 0.00 540 0.60 0 0.00
Somalia Somalia 9,330,000 100 0.01 9,311,340 99.80 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
South Sudan South Sudan 12,118,379 7,331,619 60.50 751,339 6.20 49,750 0.50 0 0.00 0 0.00 3,273,550 32.90 0 0.00 0 0.00
Tanzania Tanzania 61,741,120 38,958,647 63.10 21,053,722 34.10 627,760 1.40 44,840 0.10 0 0.00 807,120 1.80 30,000 0.07 0 0.00
Uganda Uganda 47,729,952 40,284,079 84.4 6,539,003 13.7 167,100 0.50 100,260 0.30 0 0.00 300,780 0.90 33,420 0.10 0 0.00
Zambia Zambia 20,216,029 19,730,844 97.60 202,160 1.00 65,450 0.50 13,090 0.10 0 0.00 39,270 0.30 117,810 0.90 0 0.00
Zimbabwe Zimbabwe 16,775,307 14,678,393 87.50 167,753 1.00 993,030 7.90 0 0.00 0 0.00 477,660 3.80 37,710 0.30 10,000 0.08
Eastern Africa 333,970,000 238,006,180 71.27 73,510,760 22.01 9,371,310 2.81 982,040 0.29 1,700 0.00 11,288,190 3.38 760,090 0.23 11,780 0.00

Central Africa

Country< Population Christian Muslim Irreligion Hindu Buddhist Folk religion Other religion Jewish
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Angola Angola 35,981,281 33,426,610 92.90 395,794 1.10 973,080 5.10 0 0.00 0 0.00 801,360 4.20 0 0.00 0 0.00
Cameroon Cameroon 30,135,732 17,991,032 59.70 6,087,417 20.20 1,038,800 5.30 0 0.00 0 0.00 646,800 3.30 529,270 2.70 0 0.00
Central African Republic Central African Republic 4,403,540 3,938,000 89.50 862,000 15.00 44,000 1.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 44,000 1.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Chad Chad 11,230,000 4,559,380 40.60 9,200,000 58.00 280,750 2.50 0 0.00 0 0.00 157,220 1.40 11,230 0.10 0 0.00
Democratic Republic of the Congo DRC 111,859,928 104,161,811 95.80 2,125,338 1.90 1,187,460 1.80 30,000 0.05 0 0.00 461,790 0.70 65,970 0.10 2,500 0.00003
Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo 4,040,000 3,470,360 85.90 108,000 2.00 363,600 9.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 113,120 2.80 44,440 1.10 0 0.00
Equatorial Guinea Equatorial Guinea 700,000 620,900 88.70 80,000 10.00 35,000 5.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 11,900 1.70 3,500 0.50 0 0.00
Gabon Gabon 1,510,000 1,155,150 76.50 169,120 11.20 84,560 5.60 0 0.00 0 0.00 90,600 6.00 10,570 0.70 0 0.00
São Tomé and Príncipe São Tome and Príncipe 170,000 139,740 82.20 6,000 3.00 21,420 12.60 0 0.00 0 0.00 4,930 2.90 4,080 2.40 0 0.00

Southern Africa

Country Population Christian Muslim Irreligion Hindu Buddhist Folk religion Other religion Jewish
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Botswana Botswana 2,010,000 1,449,210 72.10 8,040 0.40 414,060 20.60 6,030 0.30 0 0.00 120,600 6.00 12,060 0.60 0 0.00
Eswatini Eswatini 1,193,560 1,051,526 88.10 2,400 2.00 120,190 10.10 1,190 0.10 0 0.00 11,900 1.00 4,760 0.40 0 0.00

Lesotho Lesotho

2,170,000 2,105,560 96.70 3,000 0.10 67,270 3.10 0 0.00 0 0.00 2,170 0.10 0 0.00 0 0.00
Namibia Namibia 2,280,000 2,223,000 97.50 6,840 0.30 43,320 1.90 0 0.00 0 0.00 4,560 0.20 0 0.00 0 0.00
Saint Helena Saint Helena 4,000 3,860 96.50 140 03.50 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
South Africa South Africa 62,027,503 50,366,332 81.20 1,240,550 2.00 6,136,274 14.90 753,524 1.70 100,260 0.20 200,520 0.40 150,390 0.30 50,130 0.10


Western Africa

Country Population Christian Muslim Irreligion Hindu Buddhist Folk religion Other religion Not Stated/Undeclared
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Benin Benin 13,852,780 5,690,500 48.00 3,141,320 28.00 442,500 6.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 1,601,850 18.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Burkina Faso Burkina Faso 20,505,155 5,392,855 26.3 13,082,290 63.8 1,845,463 9.0 184,546 0.9 0 0.00
Cape Verde Cape Verde 512,450 445,500 89.10 800 2.00 45,500 9.10 0 0.00 0 0.00 7,500 1.50 1,000 0.20 0 0.00
The Gambia Gambia 1,730,000 77,850 4.50 1,645,230 95.10 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 1,730 0.10 0 0.00 0 0.00
Ghana Ghana[59] 34,237,620 24,411,423 71.3 6,813,286 19.9 338,720 1.1 985,365 3.2 1,385,665 4.5
Guinea Guinea 9,980,000 1,087,820 10.90 8,423,120 84.40 179,640 1.80 0 0.00 0 0.00 269,460 2.70 0 0.00 0 0.00
Guinea-Bissau Guinea Bissau 1,520,000 300,000 20.00 826,800 45.20 65,360 4.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 469,680 28.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Ivory Coast Ivory Coast[60] 29,389,150 11,696,880 39.8 12,490,390 42.5 3,703,033 12.6 646,450 2.2 205,725 0.7 646,560 2.2
Liberia Liberia 3,990,000 3,427,410 85.90 962,000 20.00 55,860 1.40 0 0.00 0 0.00 19,950 0.50 3,990 0.10 0 0.00
Mali Mali 19,329,841 491,840 3.20 17,508,400 95.00 414,990 0.60 0 0.00 0 0.00 245,920 1.20 0 0.00 0 0.00
Mauritania Mauritania 4,594,525 3,000 0.10 4,591,525 99.90 0 0 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0 0.00 0 0.00
Niger Niger 15,510,000 124,080 0.80 15,261,840 98.40 108,570 0.70 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Nigeria Nigeria 230,842,743 113,805,472 49.3 112,651,258 48.8 633,680 0.04 0 0.00 10,000 0.01 2,217,880 1.00 90,000 0.06 0 0.00
Senegal Senegal 17,745,000 887,250 5.00 16,325,400 92.00 35,490 0.20 0 0.00 0 0.00 496,860 2.80 0 0.00 0 0.00
Sierra Leone Sierra Leone 5,870,000 1,226,830 21.00 4,578,600 78.00 5,870 0.10 0 0.00 0 0.00 46,960 1.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Togo Togo 6,030,000 2,635,110 43.70 1,562,000 20.00 373,860 6.20 0 0.00 0 0.00 2,146,680 35.60 36,180 0.60 0 0.00


See also

References

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  2. ^ cornwell, Gordon. Theological Seminary, African Christianity.
  3. ^ Restless Spirits: Syncretic Religion Yolanda Pierce, Ph.D. Associate Professor of African American Religion & Literature
  4. ^ "AFRICAN RELIGIOUS BELIEFS - Tewahedo - Palo - Serer - Tijaniyyah - Vodon". Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  5. ^ a b c Dr J.O. Awolalu, Studies in Comparative Religion Vol. 10, No. 2. (Spring, 1976).
  6. ^ Awolalu, Dr. J.O. Studies in comparative religion.
  7. ^ Cheikh Anta Diop The African Origin of Civilization: Myth or Reality, Chicago, L.Hill, 1974. ISBN 1-55652-072-7
  8. ^ Vontress, Clemmont E. (2005), "Animism: Foundation of Traditional Healing in Sub-Saharan Africa", Integrating Traditional Healing Practices into Counseling and Psychotherapy, SAGE Publications, Inc., pp. 124–137, doi:10.4135/9781452231648, ISBN 9780761930471, retrieved 2019-11-01
  9. ^ Leo Frobenius on African History, Art, and Culture: An Anthology, 2007 ISBN 1-55876-425-9
  10. ^ Bolaji Idowu African Traditional Religion: A Definition, Maryknoll, N.Y., Orbis Books (1973) ISBN 0-88344-005-9
  11. ^ J S MbitiAfrican Religions and Philosophy, African Writers Series, Heinemann [1969] (1990). ISBN 0-435-89591-5
  12. ^ Warren, Dennis M. (1973). Disease, Medicine, and Religion Among the Techinan - Bono of Ghana: A Study in Culture Change. Indiana University.
  13. ^ Nicolini, Beatrice. "Spirit Possession, Islam, and European Power." Shackled Sentiments: Slaves, Spirits, and Memories in the African Diaspora (2019): 137.
  14. ^ Ranger, T. O. "AHM El Zein, The Sacred Meadows (Book Review)." Journal of Religion in Africa/Religion en Afrique 7.3 (1975): 212.
  15. ^ Aseffa, Abdi, Bula Sirika Wayessa, and Temesgen Burka. "“I have to Resemble My Ancestors through Modification of Midline Diastema”: An Ethnoarchaeological Study of Dental Modification among Karrayyu Oromo, Central Ethiopia." Ethnoarchaeology 8.1 (2016): 57-68.
  16. ^ Lugira, Aloysius M., African Traditional Religions (New York: Chelsea House, 2009), p. 36 [in] Varghese, Roy Abraham, Christ Connection: How the World Religions Prepared the Way for the Phenomenon of Jesus, Paraclete Press (2011), p. 1935, ISBN 9781557258397 [1] (Retrieved 7 May 2019)
  17. ^ Mbiti, John S (1992). Introduction to African religion. East African Publishers. p. 15. ISBN 9780435940027. often mix.When Africans are converted to other religions, they often mix their traditional religion with the one to which they are converted. In this way they are not losing something valuable, but are gaining something from both religious customs
  18. ^ Riggs, Thomas (2006). Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices: Religions and denominations. Thomson Gale. p. 1. ISBN 9780787666125.Although a large proportion of Africans have converted to Islam an Christianity, these two world religions have been assimilated into African culture, and many African Christians and Muslims maintain traditional spiritual beliefs
  19. ^ Gottlieb, Roger S (2006-11-09). The Oxford handbook of religion and ecology. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 9780195178722.Even in the adopted religions of Islam and Christianity, which on the surface appear to have converted millions of Africans from their traditional religions, many aspect of traditional religions are still manifest
  20. ^ "US study sheds light on Africa's unique religious mix". AFP. Archived from the original on April 25, 2010.t doesn't seem to be an either-or for many people. They can describe themselves primarily as Muslim or Christian and continue to practice many of the traditions that are characteristic of African traditional religion," Luis Lugo, executive director of the Pew Forum, told AFP.
  21. ^ Quainoo, Samuel Ebow (2000-01-01). In Transitions and consolidation of democracy in Africa. Global Academic. ISBN 9781586840402.Even though the two religions are monotheistic, most African Christians and Muslims convert to them and still retain some aspects of their traditional religions
  22. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. Britannica Book of the Year 2003. Encyclopædia Britannica, (2003) ISBN 9780852299562 p.306
    According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, as of mid-2002, there were 376,453,000 Christians, 329,869,000 Muslims and 98,734,000 people who practiced traditional religions in Africa. Ian S. Markham,(A World Religions Reader. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 1996.) is cited by Morehouse University as giving the mid-1990s figure of 278,250,800 Muslims in Africa, but still as 40.8% of the total. These numbers are estimates, and remain a matter of conjecture. See Amadu Jacky Kaba. The spread of Christianity and Islam in Africa: a survey and analysis of the numbers and percentages of Christians, Muslims and those who practice indigenous religions. The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol 29, Number 2, June 2005. Discusses the estimations of various almanacs and encyclopedium, placing Britannica's estimate as the most agreed figure. Notes the figure presented at the World Christian Encyclopedia, summarized here, as being an outlier. On rates of growth, Islam and Pentecostal Christianity are highest, see: The List: The World’s Fastest-Growing Religions, Foreign Policy, May 2007.
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Further reading

  • Bongmba, Elias Kifon, ed. The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to African Religions (2012) excerpt
  • Engel, Elisabeth. Encountering Empire: African American Missionaries in Colonial Africa, 1900–1939 (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 2015). 303 pp.
  • Mbiti, John S. Introduction to African religion (2nd ed. 1991) excerpt
  • Olupona, Jacob K. African Religions: A Very Short Introduction (2014) excerpt
  • Parrinder, Geoffrey. African Traditional Religion. (3rd ed. London: Sheldon Press, 1974) ISBN 0-85969-014-8
  • Parinder, E. Geoffrey. Africa's Three Religions. (2nd ed. London: Sheldon Press, 1976). The three religions are traditional religions (grouped), Christianity, and Islam. ISBN 0-85969-096-2
  • Ray, Benjamin C. African Religions: Symbol, Ritual, and Community (2nd ed. 1999)
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