Jump to content

Venezuela

Coordinates: 7°N 65°W / 7°N 65°W / 7; -65
Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Venezeula)

Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
República Bolivariana de Venezuela (Spanish)
Motto: Dios y Federación
("God and Federation")
Anthem: Gloria al Bravo Pueblo (Spanish)
("Glory to the Brave People")
Territory controlled by Venezuela shown in dark green; territory claimed but not controlled shown in light green
Capital
and largest city
Caracas
10°28′50″N 66°54′13″W / 10.48056°N 66.90361°W / 10.48056; -66.90361
Official languagesSpanish[b]
Recognized regional languages
Ethnic groups
(2011)[1]
Religion
(2020)[2]
  • 5.5% no religion
  • 1.1% Spiritism
  • 0.8% other
Demonym(s)Venezuelan
GovernmentFederal presidential republic under an authoritarian[a] dictatorship[b]
• President
Nicolás Maduro
Delcy Rodríguez
LegislatureNational Assembly
Independence from Spain
• Declared
5 July 1811
• from Gran Colombia
13 January 1830
• Recognized
29 March 1845
20 December 1999[16]
Area
• Total
916,445[17] km2 (353,841 sq mi) (32nd)
• Water (%)
3.2%[d]
Population
• 2023 estimate
30,518,260[18] (53rd)
• Density
33.74/km2 (87.4/sq mi) (144th)
GDP (PPP)2023 estimate
• Total
Increase $211.926 billion[19] (81st)
• Per capita
Increase $7,985[19] (159th)
GDP (nominal)2023 estimate
• Total
Increase $92.210 billion[19] (94th)
• Per capita
Increase $3,474[19] (145th)
Gini (2013)Negative increase 44.8[20]
medium inequality
HDI (2022)Increase 0.699[21]
medium (119th)
CurrencyVenezuelan bolívar (official)
United States dollar (de facto recognised, unofficial)
Time zoneUTC−4 (VET)
Date formatdd/mm/yyyy (CE)
Drives onright
Calling code+58
ISO 3166 codeVE
Internet TLD.ve
  1. ^ The "Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela" has been the full official title since the adoption of the Constitution of 1999, when the state was renamed in honor of Simón Bolívar.
  2. ^ The Constitution also recognizes all indigenous languages spoken in the country.
  3. ^ Some important subgroups include those of Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Amerindian, African, Arab and German descent.
  4. ^ Area totals include only Venezuelan-administered territory.
  5. ^ On 1 October 2021, a new bolivar was introduced, the Bolívar digital (ISO 4217 code VED) worth 1,000,000 VES.

Venezuela,[c] officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela,[d] is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many islands and islets in the Caribbean Sea. It comprises an area of 916,445 km2 (353,841 sq mi), and its population was estimated at 29 million in 2022.[18] The capital and largest urban agglomeration is the city of Caracas. The continental territory is bordered on the north by the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Colombia, Brazil on the south, Trinidad and Tobago to the north-east and on the east by Guyana. Venezuela is a presidential republic consisting of 23 states, the Capital District and federal dependencies covering Venezuela's offshore islands. Venezuela is among the most urbanized countries in Latin America;[22][23] the vast majority of Venezuelans live in the cities of the north and in the capital.

Pictorial map of Venezuela

The territory of Venezuela was colonized by Spain in 1522 amid resistance from Indigenous peoples. In 1811, it became one of the first Spanish-American territories to declare independence from the Spanish and to form part of the first federal Republic of Colombia (Gran Colombia). It separated as a full sovereign country in 1830. During the 19th century, Venezuela suffered political turmoil and autocracy, remaining dominated by regional military dictators until the mid-20th century. From 1958, the country had a series of democratic governments, as an exception where most of the region was ruled by military dictatorships, and the period was characterized by economic prosperity.

Economic shocks in the 1980s and 1990s led to major political crises and widespread social unrest, including the deadly Caracazo riots of 1989, two attempted coups in 1992, and the impeachment of a President for embezzlement of public funds charges in 1993. The collapse in confidence in the existing parties saw the 1998 Venezuelan presidential election, the catalyst for the Bolivarian Revolution, which began with a 1999 Constituent Assembly, where a new Constitution of Venezuela was imposed. The government's populist social welfare policies were bolstered by soaring oil prices,[24] temporarily increasing social spending,[25] and reducing economic inequality and poverty in the early years of the regime.[26] However, poverty began to rapidly increase in the 2010s.[27][28] The 2013 Venezuelan presidential election was widely disputed leading to widespread protest, which triggered another nationwide crisis that continues to this day.[29] Venezuela has experienced democratic backsliding, shifting into an authoritarian state.[3] It ranks low in international measurements of freedom of the press and civil liberties and has high levels of perceived corruption.[30] Venezuela is a developing country having the world's largest known oil reserves and has been one of the world's leading exporters of oil. Previously, the country was an underdeveloped exporter of agricultural commodities such as coffee and cocoa, but oil quickly came to dominate exports and government revenues. The excesses and poor policies of the incumbent government led to the collapse of Venezuela's entire economy.[31][32] The country struggles with record hyperinflation,[33][34] shortages of basic goods,[35] unemployment,[36] poverty,[37] disease, high child mortality, malnutrition, environmental issues, severe crime and corruption. These factors have precipitated the Venezuelan refugee crisis in which more than 7.7 million people had fled the country by June 2024.[38][39] By 2017, Venezuela was declared to be in default regarding debt payments by credit rating agencies.[40][41] The crisis in Venezuela has contributed to a rapidly deteriorating human rights situation.

The 2024 presidential election were not recognized by the Carter Center and Organization of American States due to the lack of granular results, and disputed by the opposition, leading to protests across the country.[42]

Etymology

According to the most popular and accepted version, in 1499, an expedition led by Alonso de Ojeda visited the Venezuelan coast. The stilt houses in the area of Lake Maracaibo reminded the Italian navigator, Amerigo Vespucci, of the city of Venice, Italy, so he named the region Veneziola, or "Little Venice".[43] The Spanish version of Veneziola is Venezuela.[44]

Martín Fernández de Enciso, a member of the Vespucci and Ojeda crew, gave a different account. In his work Summa de geografía, he states that the crew found Indigenous peoples who called themselves the Veneciuela. Thus, the name "Venezuela" may have evolved from the native word.[45]

Previously, the official name was Estado de Venezuela (1830–1856), República de Venezuela (1856–1864), Estados Unidos de Venezuela (1864–1953), and again República de Venezuela (1953–1999).

History

Pre-Columbian history

Evidence exists of human habitation in the area now known as Venezuela from about 15,000 years ago. Tools have been found on the high riverine terraces of the Rio Pedregal in western Venezuela.[46] Late Pleistocene hunting artifacts, including spear tips, have been found at a similar series of sites in northwestern Venezuela; according to radiocarbon dating, these date from 13,000 to 7,000 BC.[47]

It is unknown how many people lived in Venezuela before the Spanish conquest; it has been estimated at one million.[48] In addition to Indigenous peoples known today, the population included groups such as the Kalina (Caribs), Auaké, Caquetio, Mariche, and Timoto–Cuicas. The Timoto–Cuica culture was the most complex society in Pre-Columbian Venezuela, with pre-planned permanent villages, surrounded by irrigated, terraced fields.[49] Their houses were made of stone and wood with thatched roofs. They were peaceful and depended on growing crops. Regional crops included potatoes and ullucos.[50] They left behind art, particularly anthropomorphic ceramics, but no major monuments. They spun vegetable fibers to weave into textiles and mats for housing. They are credited with having invented the arepa, a staple in Venezuelan cuisine.[51]

After the conquest, the population dropped markedly, mainly through the spread of infectious diseases from Europe.[48] Two main north–south axes of pre-Columbian population were present, who cultivated maize in the west and manioc in the east.[48] Large parts of the llanos were cultivated through a combination of slash and burn and permanent settled agriculture.[48]

Colonization

The German Welser Armada exploring Venezuela, German Welsers ruled Venezuela from 1528 to 1546, before it was retaken by the Spanish Empire. Painting of 1560 by Hieronymus Köler.

In 1498, during his third voyage to the Americas, Christopher Columbus sailed near the Orinoco Delta and landed in the Gulf of Paria.[52] Amazed by the great offshore current of freshwater which deflected his course eastward, Columbus expressed in a letter to Isabella and Ferdinand that he must have reached Heaven on Earth (terrestrial paradise):

Great signs are these of the Terrestrial Paradise... for I have never read or heard of such a large quantity of fresh water being inside and in such close proximity to salt water; the very mild temperateness also corroborates this; and if the water of which I speak does not proceed from Paradise then it is an even greater marvel, because I do not believe such a large and deep river has ever been known to exist in this world.[53]

Spain's colonization of mainland Venezuela started in 1522, establishing its first permanent South American settlement in the present-day city of Cumaná.

German colonization

In the 16th century, the king of Spain granted a concession to the German Welser family. Klein-Venedig [54] became the most extensive initiative in the German colonization of the Americas from 1528 to 1546. The Welsers were bankers to the Habsburgs and financiers of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, who was King of Spain and had borrowed heavily from them to pay bribes for his Imperial election.[55]

In 1528, Charles V granted the Welsers the right to explore, rule and colonize the territory, as well as to seek the mythical golden town of El Dorado.[56][57][58] The first expedition was led by Ambrosius Ehinger, who established Maracaibo in 1529. After the deaths of first Ehinger (1533), then Nikolaus Federmann, and Georg von Speyer (1540), Philipp von Hutten persisted in exploring the interior. In absence of von Hutten from the capital of the province, the crown of Spain claimed the right to appoint a governor. On Hutten's return to the capital, Santa Ana de Coro, in 1546, the Spanish governor Juan de Carvajal had Hutten and Bartholomeus VI. Welser executed. Subsequently, Charles V revoked Welser's concession. The Welsers transported German miners to the colony, in addition to 4,000 African slaves to plant sugar cane plantations. Many German colonists died from tropical diseases, to which they had no immunity, or through wars with the Indigenous inhabitants.

Late 15th century to early 17th century

Native caciques (leaders) such as Guaicaipuro (c. 1530–1568) and Tamanaco (died 1573) attempted to resist Spanish incursions, but the newcomers ultimately subdued them.[59]

In the 16th century, during the Spanish colonization, indigenous peoples such as the Mariches, themselves descendants of the Kalina, were converted to Roman Catholicism. Some resisting tribes or leaders are commemorated in place names, including Caracas, Chacao and Los Teques. The early colonial settlements focused on the northern coast,[48] but in the mid-18th century, the Spanish pushed farther inland along the Orinoco River. Here, the Ye'kuana organized resistance in 1775–76.[60]

Spain's eastern Venezuelan settlements were incorporated into New Andalusia Province. Administered by the Royal Audiencia of Santo Domingo from the early 16th century, most of Venezuela became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada in the early 18th century, and was then reorganized as an autonomous Captaincy General starting in 1777. Caracas, founded in the central coastal region in 1567, was well-placed to become a key location, being near the coastal port of La Guaira and in a valley, in a mountain range, providing defensive strength against pirates and a more fertile and healthy climate.[61]

Independence and 19th century

El Libertador, Simón Bolívar

After unsuccessful uprisings, Venezuela, under the leadership of Francisco de Miranda, a Venezuelan marshal who had fought in the American and French Revolutions, declared independence as the First Republic of Venezuela on 5 July 1811.[62] This began the Venezuelan War of Independence. A devastating 1812 Caracas earthquake, together with the rebellion of the Venezuelan llaneros, helped bring down the republic.[63] Simón Bolívar, new leader of the independentist forces, launched his Admirable Campaign in 1813 from New Granada, retaking most of the territory and being proclaimed as El Libertador ("The Liberator"). A Second Republic of Venezuela was proclaimed on 7 August 1813, but lasted only a few months before being crushed by royalist caudillo José Tomás Boves and his personal army of llaneros.[64]

The end of the French invasion of homeland Spain in 1814 allowed a large expeditionary force to come under general Pablo Morillo, with the goal to regain the lost territory in Venezuela and New Granada. As the war reached a stalemate on 1817, Bolívar reestablished the Third Republic of Venezuela on the territory still controlled by the patriots, mainly in the Guayana and Llanos regions. This republic was short-lived as only two years later, during the Congress of Angostura of 1819, the union of Venezuela with New Granada was decreed to form the Republic of Colombia. The war continued until full victory and sovereignty was attained after the Battle of Carabobo on 24 June 1821.[65] On 24 July 1823, José Prudencio Padilla and Rafael Urdaneta helped seal Venezuelan independence with their victory in the Battle of Lake Maracaibo.[18] New Granada's congress gave Bolívar control of the Granadian army; leading it, he liberated several countries and founded the Republic of Colombia (Gran Colombia).[65]

Revolution of 19 April 1810, the beginning of Venezuela's independence, by Martín Tovar y Tovar

Sucre went on to liberate Ecuador and become the second president of Bolivia. Venezuela remained part of Gran Colombia until 1830, when a rebellion led by José Antonio Páez allowed the proclamation of a newly independent Venezuela, on 22 September;[66] Páez became the first president of the new State of Venezuela.[67] Between one-quarter and one-third of Venezuela's population was lost during these two decades of war (including about half the Venezuelans of European descent),[68] which by 1830, was estimated at 800,000.[69] In the Flag of Venezuela, the yellow stands for land wealth, the blue for the sea that separates Venezuela from Spain, and the red for the blood shed by the heroes of independence.[70]

Slavery in Venezuela was abolished in 1854.[69] Much of Venezuela's 19th-century history was characterized by political turmoil and dictatorial rule, including the Independence leader José Antonio Páez, who gained the presidency three times and served 11 years between 1830 and 1863. This culminated in the Federal War (1859–63). In the latter half of the century, Antonio Guzmán Blanco, another caudillo, served 13 years, between 1870 and 1887, with three other presidents interspersed.

The signing of Venezuela's independence, by Martín Tovar y Tovar

In 1895, a longstanding dispute with Great Britain about the Essequibo territory, which Britain claimed as part of British Guiana and Venezuela saw as Venezuelan territory, erupted into the Venezuela Crisis of 1895. The dispute became a diplomatic crisis when Venezuela's lobbyist, William L. Scruggs, sought to argue that British behavior over the issue violated the United States' Monroe Doctrine of 1823, and used his influence in Washington, D.C., to pursue the matter. Then, U.S. president Grover Cleveland adopted a broad interpretation of the doctrine that declared an American interest in any matter within the hemisphere.[71] Britain ultimately accepted arbitration, but in negotiations over its terms was able to persuade the U.S. on many details. A tribunal convened in Paris in 1898 to decide the issue and in 1899 awarded the bulk of the disputed territory to British Guiana.[72]

In 1899, Cipriano Castro, assisted by his friend Juan Vicente Gómez, seized power in Caracas. Castro defaulted on Venezuela's considerable foreign debts and declined to pay compensation to foreigners caught up in Venezuela's civil wars. This led to the Venezuela Crisis of 1902–1903, in which Britain, Germany and Italy imposed a naval blockade before international arbitration at the new Permanent Court of Arbitration was agreed. In 1908, another dispute broke out with the Netherlands, which was resolved when Castro left for medical treatment in Germany and was promptly overthrown by Juan Vicente Gómez (1908–35).

20th century

Rómulo Betancourt (president 1945–1948 / 1959–1964), one of the major democratic leaders of Venezuela

The discovery of massive oil deposits in Lake Maracaibo during World War I[73] proved pivotal for Venezuela and transformed its economy from a heavy dependence on agricultural exports. It prompted a boom that lasted into the 1980s; by 1935, Venezuela's per capita gross domestic product was Latin America's highest.[74] Gómez benefited handsomely from this, as corruption thrived, but at the same time, the new source of income helped him centralize the state and develop its authority.

Gómez remained the most powerful man in Venezuela until his death in 1935. The gomecista dictatorship (1935–1945) system largely continued under Eleazar López Contreras, but from 1941, under Isaías Medina Angarita, was relaxed. Angarita granted a range of reforms, including the legalization of all political parties. After World War II, immigration from Southern Europe and poorer Latin American countries markedly diversified Venezuelan society.[75]

In 1945, a civilian-military coup overthrew Medina Angarita and ushered in a period of democratic rule (1945–1948) under the mass membership party Democratic Action, initially under Rómulo Betancourt, until Rómulo Gallegos won the 1947 Venezuelan presidential election (the first free and fair elections in Venezuela).[76][77] Gallegos governed until overthrown by a military junta led by the triumvirate Luis Felipe Llovera Páez [es], Marcos Pérez Jiménez, and Gallegos' Defense Minister, Carlos Delgado Chalbaud, in the 1948 Venezuelan coup d'état.

President Carlos Andrés Pérez was impeached on corruption charges in 1993.

The most powerful man in the military junta (1948–58) was Pérez Jiménez and he was suspected of being behind the death of Chalbaud, who died in a bungled kidnapping in 1950. When the junta unexpectedly lost the 1952 presidential election, it ignored the results and Jiménez was installed as president[citation needed] Jiménez was forced out on 23 January 1958.[18] In an effort to consolidate a young democracy, the three major political parties (Acción Democrática (AD), COPEI and Unión Republicana Democrática (URD), with the notable exception of the Communist Party of Venezuela), signed the Puntofijo Pact power-sharing agreement. AD and COPEI dominated the political landscape for four decades.

During the presidencies of Rómulo Betancourt (1959–64, his second term) and Raúl Leoni (1964–69), substantial guerilla movements occurred. Most laid down their arms under Rafael Caldera's first presidency (1969–74). Caldera had won the 1968 election for COPEI, the first time a party other than Democratic Action took the presidency through a democratic election. The new democratic order had its antagonists. Betancourt suffered an attack planned by the Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo in 1960, and the leftists excluded from the Pact initiated an insurgency by organizing themselves into the Armed Forces of National Liberation, sponsored by the Communist Party and Fidel Castro. In 1962 they tried to destabilize the military corps, with failed revolts. Betancourt promoted a foreign policy, the Betancourt Doctrine, in which he only recognized elected governments by popular vote.[need quotation to verify]

Sabana Grande district, Caracas (1973)

The 1973 Venezuelan presidential election of Carlos Andrés Pérez coincided with an oil crisis, in which Venezuela's income exploded as oil prices soared; oil industries were nationalized in 1976. This led to massive increases in public spending, but also increases in external debts, until the collapse of oil prices during the 1980s crippled the economy. As the government started to devalue the currency in 1983 to face its financial obligations, standards of living fell dramatically. Failed economic policies and increasing corruption in government led to rising poverty and crime, worsening social indicators, and increased political instability.[78]

In the 1980s, the Presidential Commission for State Reform (COPRE) emerged as a mechanism of political innovation. Venezuela decentralized its political system and diversified its economy, reducing the size of the state. COPRE operated as an innovation mechanism, also by incorporating issues into the political agenda, that were excluded from public deliberation by the main actors of the democratic system. The most discussed topics were incorporated into the public agenda: decentralization, political participation, municipalization, judicial order reforms and the role of the state in a new economic strategy. The social reality made the changes difficult to apply.[79]

Economic crises in the 1980s and 1990s led to a political crisis. Hundreds of people were killed by security forces and the military in the Caracazo riots of 1989, during the second presidential term of Carlos Andrés Pérez (1989–1993) and after the implementation of economic austerity measures.[80] Hugo Chávez, who in 1982 had promised to depose the bipartisanship governments, used the growing anger at economic austerity measures to justify a coup attempt in February 1992;[81][82] a second coup d'état attempt occurred in November.[82] President Carlos Andrés Pérez (re-elected in 1988) was impeached under embezzlement charges in 1993, leading to the interim presidency of Ramón José Velásquez (1993–1994). Coup leader Chávez was pardoned in March 1994 by president Rafael Caldera (1994–1999, his second term), with a clean slate and his political rights reinstated, allowing Chávez to win and maintain the presidency continuously from 1999 until his death in 2013. Chávez won the elections of 1998, 2000, 2006 and 2012 and the presidential referendum of 2004.

Bolivarian government under Chávez: 1999–2013

Chávez with fellow South American presidents Néstor Kirchner of Argentina and Lula da Silva of Brazil

A collapse in confidence in the existing parties led to Hugo Chávez being elected president in 1998 and the subsequent launch of a "Bolivarian Revolution", beginning with a 1999 constituent assembly to write a new Constitution. The Revolution refers to a left-wing populism social movement and political process led by Chávez, who founded the Fifth Republic Movement in 1997 and the United Socialist Party of Venezuela in 2007. The "Bolivarian Revolution" is named after Simón Bolívar. According to Chávez and other supporters, the "Bolivarian Revolution" sought to build a mass movement to implement Bolivarianismpopular democracy, economic independence, equitable distribution of revenues, and an end to political corruption. They interpret Bolívar's ideas from a populist perspective, using socialist rhetoric. This led to formation of the Fifth Republic of Venezuela, commonly known as the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, that continues to the present day. Venezuela has been considered the Bolivarian Republic following the adoption of the new Constitution of 1999. Following Chávez's election, Venezuela developed into a dominant-party system, dominated by the United Socialist Party of Venezuela. In April 2002, Chávez was briefly ousted from power in the 2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt following popular demonstrations by his opponents,[83] but Chavez returned after two days as a result of demonstrations by poor Chávez supporters and actions by the military.[84][85] Chávez remained in power after an all-out national strike that lasted from December 2002 to February 2003, including a strike/lockout in the state oil company PDVSA.[86] Capital flight before and during the strike led to the reimposition of currency controls. In the subsequent decade, the government was forced into currency devaluations.[87][88][89][90] These devaluations did not improve the situation[vague] of the people who rely on imported products or locally produced products that depend on imported inputs, while dollar-denominated oil sales account for the majority of exports.[91] The profits of the oil industry have been lost to "social engineering" and corruption, instead of investments needed to maintain oil production.[92]

Chávez survived further political tests, including an August 2004 recall referendum. He was elected for another term in December 2006 and for a third term in October 2012. However, he was never sworn in due to medical complications; he died in March 2013.[93]

Bolivarian government under Maduro: 2013–present

The presidential election that took place in April 2013, was the first since Chávez took office in 1999 in which his name did not appear on the ballot.[94][self-published source?] Under the Bolivarian government, Venezuela went from being one of the richest countries in Latin America to one of the poorest.[95] Hugo Chávez's socioeconomic policies of relying on oil sales and importing goods resulted in large amounts of debt, no change to corruption in Venezuela and culminated into a crisis in Venezuela.[95] As a result, the Venezuelan refugee crisis, the largest emigration of people in Latin America's history,[96] occurred, with over 7 million – about 20% of the country's population – emigrating.[97][98] Chávez initiated Bolivarian missions, programs aimed at helping the poor.[99]

Nicolás Maduro in 2016

Poverty began to increase into the 2010s.[27] Nicolás Maduro was picked by Chavez as his successor, appointing him vice president in 2013.[89][100][101]

Maduro has been president of Venezuela since 14 April 2013, when he won the presidential election after Chavez' death, with 51% of the vote, against Henrique Capriles on 49%. The Democratic Unity Roundtable contested Maduro's election as fraud, but an audit of 56% of the vote showed no discrepancies,[102] and the Supreme Court of Venezuela ruled Maduro was the legitimate president.[103] Opposition leaders and some international media consider Maduro's government a dictatorship.[13][14][15] Since February 2014, hundreds of thousands have protested over high levels of criminal violence, corruption, hyperinflation, and chronic scarcity of basic goods due to government policies.[104][105][106] Demonstrations and riots have resulted in over 40 fatalities in the unrest between Chavistas and opposition protesters[107] and opposition leaders, including Leopoldo López and Antonio Ledezma were arrested.[107][108][109] Human rights groups condemned the arrest of López.[110] In the 2015 Venezuelan parliamentary election, the opposition gained a majority.[111]

Venezuela devalued its currency in February 2013 due to rising shortages,[90][112] which included milk and other necessities. This led to an increase in malnutrition, especially among children.[113][114] The economy had become dependent on the exportation of oil, with crude accounting for 86% of exports,[115] and a high price per barrel to support social programs. Beginning in 2014 the price of oil plummeted from over $100 to $40. This placed pressure on the economy, which was no longer able to afford vast social programs. The Government began taking more money from PDVSA, the state oil company, resulting in a lack of reinvestment in fields and employees. Production decreased from its height of nearly 3 to 1 million barrels (480 to 160 thousand cubic metres) per day.[116][117][118] In 2014, Venezuela entered a recession,[119] and in 2015, had the world's highest inflation, surpassing 100%.[120] In 2017, Donald Trump's administration imposed more economic sanctions against PDVSA and Venezuelan officials.[121][122][123] Economic problems, as well as crime, were the causes of the 2014–present Venezuelan protests.[124][125] Since 2014, roughly 5.6 million people have fled Venezuela.[126]

In January 2016, Maduro decreed an "economic emergency", revealing the extent of the crisis and expanding his powers.[127] In July 2016, Colombian border crossings were temporarily opened to allow Venezuelans to purchase food and basic health items.[128] In September 2016, a study[129] indicated 15% of Venezuelans were eating "food waste discarded by commercial establishments". 200 prison riots had occurred by October 2016.[130]

Maduro was inaugurated for a contested and controversial second term on 10 January 2019.

The Maduro-aligned Supreme Tribunal, which had been overturning National Assembly decisions since the opposition took control, took over the functions of the assembly, creating the 2017 Venezuelan constitutional crisis.[13] In August 2017, the 2017 Constituent National Assembly was elected and stripped the National Assembly of its powers.[citation needed] The election raised concerns of an emerging dictatorship.[131] In December 2017, Maduro declared opposition parties barred from the following year's presidential vote after they boycotted mayoral polls.[132]

Maduro won the 2018 election with 68% of the vote. The result was challenged by Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Brazil, Canada, Germany, France and the US who deemed it fraudulent and recognized Juan Guaidó as president.[133][134][135] Other countries continued to recognize Maduro,[136][137] although China, facing financial pressure over its position, began hedging by decreasing loans, cancelling joint ventures, and signaling willingness to work with all parties.[138][139] In August 2019, Trump imposed an economic embargo against Venezuela.[140] In March 2020, Trump indicted Maduro and Venezuelan officials, on charges of drug trafficking, narcoterrorism, and corruption.[141]

In June 2020, a report documented enforced disappearances that occurred in 2018–19. 724 enforced disappearances of political detainees were reported. The report stated that security forces subjected victims to torture. The report stated the government used enforced disappearances to silence opponents and other critical voices.[142][143]

Protesters in Caracas fighting against the public forces during the 2024 Venezuelan protests

Maduro ran for a third consecutive term in the 2024 presidential election, while former diplomat Edmundo González Urrutia represented the Unitary Platform (Spanish: Plataforma Unitaria Democrática; PUD), the main opposition political alliance.[144][145] Polls conducted before the election indicated that González would win by a wide margin. After the government-controlled National Electoral Council (CNE) announced partial results showing a narrow Maduro victory on 29 July, world leaders predominantly expressed skepticism of the claimed results and did not recognize the CNE claims[146][147] with only some exceptions.[148] Both González and Maduro proclaimed themselves winners of the election. The results of the election were not recognized by the Carter Center and Organization of American States due to the lack of granular results, and disputed by the opposition, which claimed a landslide victory and released access to vote tallies collected by poll watchers from a majority of polling centers as proof.[149][150][151][152]

In the aftermath of the announcement of results by the election authorities, protests broke out across the country.

Geography

Topographic map of Venezuela

Venezuela is located in the north of South America; geologically, its mainland rests on the South American Plate. It has a total area of 916,445 km2 (353,841 sq mi) and a land area of 882,050 km2 (340,560 sq mi), making Venezuela the 33rd largest country in the world. The territory it controls lies between latitudes and 16°N and longitudes 59° and 74°W.

Shaped roughly like a triangle, the country has a 2,800 km (1,700 mi) coastline in the north, which includes numerous islands in the Caribbean and the northeast borders the northern Atlantic Ocean. Most observers describe Venezuela in terms of four fairly well defined topographical regions: the Maracaibo lowlands in the northwest, the northern mountains extending in a broad east–west arc from the Colombian border along the northern Caribbean coast, the wide plains in central Venezuela, and the Guiana Highlands in the southeast.

The northern mountains are the extreme northeastern extensions of South America's Andes mountain range. Pico Bolívar, the nation's highest point at 4,979 m (16,335 ft), lies in this region. To the south, the dissected Guiana Highlands contain the northern fringes of the Amazon Basin and Angel Falls, the world's highest waterfall, as well as tepuis, large table-like mountains. The country's center is characterized by the llanos, which are extensive plains that stretch from the Colombian border in the far west to the Orinoco River delta in the east. The Orinoco, with its rich alluvial soils, binds the largest and most important river system of the country; it originates in one of the largest watersheds in Latin America. The Caroní and the Apure are other major rivers.

Cayo de Agua, Los Roques Archipiélago, Caribbean Sea

Venezuela borders Colombia to the west, Guyana to the east, and Brazil to the south. Caribbean islands such as Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, Curaçao, Aruba, and the Leeward Antilles lie near the Venezuelan coast. Venezuela has territorial disputes with Guyana, formerly United Kingdom, largely concerning the Essequibo area and with Colombia concerning the Gulf of Venezuela. In 1895, after years of diplomatic attempts to solve the border dispute, the dispute over the Essequibo River border flared up. It was submitted to a "neutral" commission (composed of British, American, and Russian representatives and without a direct Venezuelan representative), which in 1899 decided mostly against Venezuela's claim.[citation needed]

Climate

Venezuela is entirely located in the tropics over the Equator to around 12° N. Its climate varies from humid low-elevation plains, where average annual temperatures range as high as 35 °C (95.0 °F), to glaciers and highlands (the páramos) with an average yearly temperature of 8 °C (46.4 °F). Annual rainfall varies from 430 mm (16.9 in) in the semiarid portions of the northwest to over 1,000 mm (39.4 in) in the Orinoco Delta of the far east and the Amazonian Jungle in the south. The precipitation level is lower in the period from August through April. These periods are referred to as hot-humid and cold-dry seasons. Another characteristic of the climate is this variation throughout the country by the existence of a mountain range called "Cordillera de la Costa" which crosses the country from east to west. The majority of the population lives in these mountains.[153]

Venezuela map of Köppen climate classification

The country falls into four horizontal temperature zones based primarily on elevation, having tropical, dry, temperate with dry winters, and polar (alpine tundra) climates, amongst others.[154][155][156] In the tropical zone—below 800 m (2,625 ft)—temperatures are hot, with yearly averages ranging between 26 and 28 °C (78.8 and 82.4 °F). The temperate zone ranges between 800 and 2,000 m (2,625 and 6,562 ft) with averages from 12 to 25 °C (53.6 to 77.0 °F); many of Venezuela's cities, including the capital, lie in this region. Colder conditions with temperatures from 9 to 11 °C (48.2 to 51.8 °F) are found in the cool zone between 2,000 and 3,000 m (6,562 and 9,843 ft), especially in the Venezuelan Andes, where pastureland and permanent snowfield with yearly averages below 8 °C (46 °F) cover land above 3,000 meters (9,843 ft) in the páramos.

The highest temperature recorded was 42 °C (108 °F) in Machiques,[157] and the lowest temperature recorded was −11 °C (12 °F), reported from an uninhabited high altitude at Páramo de Piedras Blancas (Mérida state).[158]

Biodiversity and conservation

The national animal of Venezuela is the Venezuelan troupial.

Venezuela lies within the Neotropical realm; large portions of the country were originally covered by moist broadleaf forests. One of 17 megadiverse countries,[159] Venezuela's habitats range from the Andes Mountains in the west to the Amazon Basin rainforest in the south, via extensive llanos plains and Caribbean coast in the center and the Orinoco River Delta in the east. They include xeric scrublands in the extreme northwest and coastal mangrove forests in the northeast.[153] Its cloud forests and lowland rainforests are particularly rich.[160]

Animals of Venezuela are diverse and include manatees, three-toed sloth, two-toed sloth, Amazon river dolphins, and Orinoco Crocodiles, which have been reported to reach up to 6.6 m (22 ft) in length. Venezuela hosts a total of 1,417 bird species, 48 of which are endemic.[161] Important birds include ibises, ospreys, kingfishers,[160] and the yellow-orange Venezuelan troupial, the national bird. Notable mammals include the giant anteater, jaguar, and the capybara, the world's largest rodent. More than half of Venezuelan avian and mammalian species are found in the Amazonian forests south of the Orinoco.[162]

For the fungi, an account was provided by R.W.G. Dennis[163] which has been digitized and the records made available on-line as part of the Cybertruffle Robigalia database.[164] That database includes nearly 3,900 species of fungi recorded from Venezuela, but is far from complete, and the true total number of fungal species already known from Venezuela is likely higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered.[165]

Crocodile in Hato El Cedral in Apure State

Among plants of Venezuela, over 25,000 species of orchids are found in the country's cloud forest and lowland rainforest ecosystems.[160] These include the flor de mayo orchid (Cattleya mossiae), the national flower. Venezuela's national tree is the araguaney. The tops of the tepuis are also home to several carnivorous plants including the marsh pitcher plant, Heliamphora, and the insectivorous bromeliad, Brocchinia reducta.

Venezuela is among the top 20 countries in terms of endemism.[166] Among its animals, 23% of reptilian and 50% of amphibian species, including the Trinidad poison frog, are endemic.[166][167] Although the available information is still very small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to Venezuela: 1334 species of fungi have been tentatively identified as possibly endemic.[168] Some 38% of the over 21,000 plant species known from Venezuela are unique to the country.[166]

Venezuela is one of the 10 most biodiverse countries on the planet, yet it is one of the leaders of deforestation due to economic and political factors. Each year, roughly 287,600 hectares of forest are permanently destroyed, and other areas are degraded by mining, oil extraction, and logging. Between 1990 and 2005, Venezuela officially lost 8.3% of its forest cover, which is about 4.3 million ha. In response, federal protections for critical habitat were implemented; for example, 20% to 33% of forested land is protected.[162] Venezuela had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.78/10, ranking it 19th globally out of 172 countries.[169] The country's biosphere reserve is part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[170] In 2003, 70% of the nation's land was under conservation management in over 200 protected areas, including 43 national parks.[171] Venezuela's 43 national parks include Canaima National Park, Morrocoy National Park, and Mochima National Park. In the far south is a reserve for the country's Yanomami tribes. Covering 32,000 square miles (82,880 square kilometres), the area is off-limits to farmers, miners, and all non-Yanomami settlers.

Valencia Lake, formerly praised by Alexander von Humboldt for its beauty, is massively polluted due to the countless sewage systems pouring residuals.[172]

Venezuela was one of the few countries that did not enter an INDC at COP21.[173][174] Many terrestrial ecosystems are considered endangered, specially the dry forest in the northern regions of the country and the coral reefs in the Caribbean coast.[175][176][177]

There are 105 protected areas in Venezuela, which cover around 26% of the country's continental, marine and insular surface.[citation needed]

Hydrography

The country is made up of three river basins: the Caribbean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean and Lake Valencia, which forms an endorheic basin.[178]

On the Atlantic side it drains most of Venezuela's river waters. The largest basin in this area is the extensive Orinoco basin[179] whose surface area, close to one million km2, is greater than that of the whole of Venezuela, although it has a presence of 65% in the country.

The size of this basin - similar to that of the Danube - makes it the third largest in South America, and it gives rise to a flow of some 33,000 m3/s, making the Orinoco the third largest in the world, and also one of the most valuable from the point of view of renewable natural resources. The Rio or Brazo Casiquiare is unique in the world, as it is a natural derivation of the Orinoco that, after some 500 km in length, connects it to the Negro River, which in turn is a tributary of the Amazon.

Victoria Lagoon, Mérida State

The Orinoco receives directly or indirectly rivers such as the Ventuari, the Caura, the Caroní, the Meta, the Arauca, the Apure and many others. Other Venezuelan rivers that empty into the Atlantic are the waters of the San Juan and Cuyuní basins. Finally, there is the Amazon River, which receives the Guainía, the Negro and others. Other basins are the Gulf of Paria and the Esequibo River. The second most important watershed is the Caribbean Sea. The rivers of this region are usually short and of scarce and irregular flow, with some exceptions such as the Catatumbo, which originates in Colombia and drains into the Maracaibo Lake basin. Among the rivers that reach the Maracaibo lake basin are the Chama, the Escalante, the Catatumbo, and the contributions of the smaller basins of the Tocuyo, Yaracuy, Neverí and Manzanares rivers.

A minimum drains to the Lake Valencia basin.[180] Of the total extension of the rivers, a total of 5400 km are navigable. Other rivers worth mentioning are the Apure, Arauca, Caura, Meta, Barima, Portuguesa, Ventuari and Zulia, among others.

Amazon rainforest and Autana River, Amazonas state

The country's main lakes are Lake Maracaibo[181] -the largest in South America- open to the sea through the natural channel, but with fresh water, and Lake Valencia with its endorheic system. Other noteworthy bodies of water are the Guri reservoir, the Altagracia lagoon, the Camatagua reservoir and the Mucubají lagoon in the Andes.

Relief

The Venezuelan natural landscape[182] is the product of the interaction of tectonic plates[182] that since the Paleozoic have contributed to its current appearance. On the formed structures, seven physical-natural units have been modeled, differentiated in their relief and in their natural resources.

Bolívar Peak, the highest mountain in Venezuela, in Sierra Nevada de Mérida

The relief of Venezuela has the following characteristics: coastline with several peninsulas[183] and islands, adenas of the Andes mountain range (north and northwest), Lake Maracaibo (between the chains, on the coast);[184] Orinoco river delta,[185] region of peneplains and plateaus (tepui, east of the Orinoco) that together form the Guyanas massif (plateaus, southeast of the country).

The oldest rock formations in South America are found in the complex basement of the Guyanas highlands[186] and in the crystalline line of the Maritime and Cordillera massifs in Venezuela. The Venezuelan part of the Guyanas Altiplano consists of a large granite block of gneiss and other crystalline Archean rocks, with underlying layers of sandstone and shale clay.[187]

The core of granite and cordillera is, to a large extent, flanked by sedimentary layers from the Cretaceous,[188] folded in an anticline structure. Between these orographic systems there are plains covered with tertiary and quaternary layers of gravel, sands and clayey marls. The depression contains lagoons and lakes, among which is that of Maracaibo, and presents, on the surface, alluvial deposits from the Quaternary.[189]

Also known as the Cordillera de la Costa, stretches along Venezuela's northern coast. This region is known for its lush tropical rainforests, stunning coastal views, and a rich variety of flora and fauna. The intermountain depressions, or valleys, between the mountain ranges are often home to fertile agricultural land and vibrant communities. These valleys offer a stark contrast to the rugged mountains that rise dramatically from the coast.

Los Llanos, Apure state

Situated in northwestern Venezuela, the Lara-Falcón Highlands exhibit a terrain defined by plateaus and rolling hills. These highlands provide a significant contrast to the surrounding lowlands and coastal areas. The relief is characterized by gently sloping plateaus that support agriculture, including coffee and cacao cultivation. This region's semi-arid climate and picturesque landscapes make it an important agricultural and tourism center.

Encompass the basin of Lake Maracaibo and the plains surrounding the Gulf of Venezuela. This region offers two distinct plains—the northern one is relatively dry, while the southern one is humid and dotted with swamps. The relief here is primarily characterized by flat terrain, with the exception of some elevated areas near the lake. Lake Maracaibo itself sits in a depression, surrounded by oil-rich lands and productive agricultural areas.[184]

The Venezuelan Andes, part of the broader Andes mountain range, offer a striking relief with towering peaks, deep valleys, and fertile intermontane basins. Dominated by these corpulent mountain ranges, including Venezuela's highest peak, Bolívar Peak, the region's rugged and picturesque landscapes are defined by its high-altitude terrain.

Coastal Mountain Range (Cordillera de la Costa) in Venezuela

The unique relief of this area finds its origins in the Last Glacial Period, where the interplay of repeated glacier advances and retreats sculpted the landscape, shaped by the cold, high-altitude climate. This glacial heritage has left a lasting imprint, with glaciers carving deep valleys and polishing rugged peaks, while sheltered intramontane valleys offer fertile soils and temperate microclimates, creating ideal conditions for agriculture and human settlement.

Los Llanos, or "the plains", are expansive sedimentary basins characterized by predominantly flat relief.[190] However, the eastern Llanos feature low-plateaus and the Unare depression, created through mesa erosion, adding diversity to the terrain. This region is subject to seasonal flooding, transforming the flat plains into a vast wetland during the rainy season. The relief here influences the region's unique ecosystems, including extensive grasslands and abundant wildlife.

The Guiana Shield boasts a varied relief shaped by geological processes over millions of years. This region encompasses peneplains, rugged mountain ranges, foothills, and the iconic tepuis, or table-top mountains. The tepuis stand as isolated, flat-topped plateaus that rise dramatically from the surrounding terrain. This unique relief contributes to the region's remarkable biodiversity and scientific significance.[186]

The Orinoco Delta's relief is characterized by a complex system of lands and waters. It consists of numerous channels, islands, and shifting sedimentary deposits. While the relief may appear relatively uniform, it conceals a dynamic environment influenced by seasonal flooding and sediment deposition. This complex deltaic relief supports diverse aquatic life and the livelihoods of Indigenous communities adapted to its ever-changing landscapes.[185]

Valleys

The valleys are undoubtedly the most important type of landscape in the Venezuelan territory,[191] not because of their spatial extension, but because they are the environment where most of the country's population and economic activities are concentrated. On the other hand, there are valleys throughout almost all the national space, except in the great sedimentary basins of the Llanos and the depression of the Maracaibo Lake, except also in the Amazonian peneplains.[192] By their modeling, the valleys of the Venezuelan territory belong mainly to two types: valleys of fluvial type and valleys of glacial type.[193] Much more frequent, the former largely dominate the latter, which are restricted to the highest parts of the Andes. Moreover, most glacial valleys are relics of a past geologic epoch, which culminated some 10,000 to 12,000 years ago.

The deep and narrow Andean valleys are very different from the wide depressions of Aragua and Carabobo, in the Cordillera de la Costa, or from the valleys nestled in the Mesas de Monagas. These examples indicate that the configuration of the local relief is decisive in identifying regional types of valleys. Likewise, due to their warm climate, the Guayana valleys are distinguished from the temperate or cold Andean valleys by their humid environment. Both are, in turn, different from the semi-arid depressions of the states of Lara and Falcón.

The Andean valleys, essentially agricultural, precociously populated but nowadays in loss of speed, do not confront the same problems of space occupation as the strongly urbanized and industrialized valleys of the central section of the Cordillera de la Costa. On the other hand, the unpopulated and practically untouched Guiana valleys are another category this area is called the Lost World (Mundo Perdido).[192]

The Andean valleys are undoubtedly the most impressive of the Venezuelan territory because of the energy of the encasing reliefs, whose summits often dominate the valley bottoms by 3,000 to 3,500 meters of relative altitude. They are also the most picturesque in terms of their style of habitat, forms of land use, handicraft production and all the traditions linked to these activities.[192]

Deserts

Médanos de Coro National Park, Paraguaná Peninsula, Falcón State, Venezuela

Venezuela has a great diversity of landscapes and climates,[194] including arid and dry areas. The main desert in the country is in the state of Falcon near the city of Coro. It is now a protected park, the Médanos de Coro National Park.[195] The park is the largest of its kind in Venezuela, covering 91 square kilometres. The landscape is dotted with cacti and other xerophytic plants that can survive in humidity-free conditions near the desert.

Desert wildlife includes mostly lizards, iguanas and other reptiles. Although less frequent, the desert is home to some foxes, giant anteaters and rabbits. There are also some native bird populations, such as the sparrowhawk, tropical mockingbird, scaly dove and crested quail.

Other desert areas in the country include part of the Guajira Desert in the Guajira Municipality in the north of Zulia State[196] and facing the Gulf of Venezuela, the Médanos de Capanaparo[197] in the Santos Luzardo National Park in Apure State, the Medanos de la Isla de Zapara[198] in Zulia State, the so-called Hundición de Yay[199] in the Andrés Eloy Blanco Municipality of Lara State, and the Urumaco Formation also in Falcón State.

Government and politics

Two major blocs of political parties are in Venezuela: the incumbent leftist bloc United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV), its major allies Fatherland for All (PPT) and the Communist Party of Venezuela (PCV), and the opposition bloc grouped into the electoral coalition Mesa de la Unidad Democrática. This includes A New Era (UNT) together with allied parties Project Venezuela, Justice First, Movement for Socialism (MAS) and others.

The Venezuelan president is elected by a vote, with direct and universal suffrage, and is both head of state and head of government. The term of office is six years, and (as of 15 February 2009) a president may be re-elected an unlimited number of times. The president appoints the vice president and decides the size and composition of the cabinet and makes appointments to it with the involvement of the legislature. The president can ask the legislature to reconsider portions of laws he finds objectionable, but a simple parliamentary majority can override these objections.

The president may ask the National Assembly to pass an enabling act granting the ability to rule by decree in specified policy areas; this requires a two-thirds majority in the Assembly. Since 1959, six Venezuelan presidents have been granted such powers.

The unicameral Venezuelan parliament is the Asamblea Nacional ("National Assembly"). The number of members is variable – each state and the Capital district elect three representatives plus the result of dividing the state population by 1.1% of the total population of the country.[200] Three seats are reserved for representatives of Venezuela's Indigenous peoples. For the 2011–2016 period the number of seats is 165.[201] All deputies serve five-year terms.

The voting age in Venezuela is 18. Voting is not compulsory.[202]

The legal system of Venezuela belongs to the Continental Law tradition. The highest judicial body is the Supreme Tribunal of Justice or Tribunal Supremo de Justicia, whose magistrates are elected by parliament for a single twelve-year term. The National Electoral Council (Consejo Nacional Electoral, or CNE) is in charge of electoral processes; it is formed by five main directors elected by the National Assembly. Supreme Court president Luisa Estela Morales said in December 2009 that Venezuela had moved away from "a rigid division of powers" toward a system characterized by "intense coordination" between the branches of government. Morales clarified that each power must be independent.[203]

Administrative divisions

Map of the Venezuelan federation

Venezuela is divided into 23 states (estados), a capital district (distrito capital) corresponding to the city of Caracas, and the Federal Dependencies (Dependencias Federales, a special territory). Venezuela is further subdivided into 335 municipalities (municipios); these are subdivided into over one thousand parishes (parroquias). The states are grouped into nine administrative regions (regiones administrativas), which were established in 1969 by presidential decree.[citation needed]

The country can be further divided into ten geographical areas, some corresponding to climatic and biogeographical regions. In the north are the Venezuelan Andes and the Coro region, a mountainous tract in the northwest, holds several sierras and valleys. East of it are lowlands abutting Lake Maracaibo and the Gulf of Venezuela.[citation needed]

The Central Range runs parallel to the coast and includes the hills surrounding Caracas; the Eastern Range, separated from the Central Range by the Gulf of Cariaco, covers all of Sucre and northern Monagas. The Insular Region includes all of Venezuela's island possessions: Nueva Esparta and the various Federal Dependencies. The Orinoco Delta, which forms a triangle covering Delta Amacuro, projects northeast into the Atlantic Ocean.[citation needed]

The country maintains a claim on the territory it calls "Guayana Esequiba", the territory administered by Guyana west of the Esequibo River. In 1966 the British and Venezuelan governments signed the Geneva Agreement to resolve the conflict peacefully. The Port of Spain Protocol of 1970 set a deadline to try to resolve the issue, without success to date.[citation needed]

State Capital State Capital
 Amazonas Puerto Ayacucho  Mérida Mérida
 Anzoátegui Barcelona  Miranda Los Teques
 Apure San Fernando de Apure  Monagas Maturín
 Aragua Maracay  Nueva Esparta La Asunción
 Barinas Barinas  Portuguesa Guanare
 Bolívar Ciudad Bolívar  Sucre Cumaná
 Carabobo Valencia  Táchira San Cristóbal
 Cojedes San Carlos  Trujillo Trujillo
 Delta Amacuro Tucupita  Yaracuy San Felipe
 Caracas Caracas  Zulia Maracaibo
 Falcón Coro  Vargas La Guaira
 Guárico San Juan de los Morros  Federal Dependencies1 El Gran Roque
 Lara Barquisimeto
1 The Federal Dependencies are not states. They are just special divisions of the territory.

Largest cities

 
 
Largest cities or towns in Venezuela
Rank Name State Pop. Rank Name State Pop.
Caracas
Caracas
Maracaibo
Maracaibo
1 Caracas Capital District 2,904,376 11 Ciudad Bolívar Bolívar 342,280 Valencia
Valencia
Barquisimeto
Barquisimeto
2 Maracaibo Zulia 1,906,205 12 San Cristóbal Táchira 263,765
3 Valencia Carabobo 1,396,322 13 Cabimas Zulia 263,056
4 Barquisimeto Lara 996,230 14 Los Teques Miranda 252,242
5 Ciudad Guayana Bolívar 706,736 15 Puerto la Cruz Anzoátegui 244,728
6 Maturín Monagas 542,259 16 Punto Fijo Falcón 239,444
7 Barcelona Anzoátegui 421,424 17 Mérida Mérida 217,547
8 Maracay Aragua 407,109 18 Guarenas Miranda 209,987
9 Cumaná Sucre 358,919 19 Ciudad Ojeda Zulia 203,435
10 Barinas Barinas 353.851 20 Guanare Portuguesa 192,644

Suspension of constitutional rights

Protests in Altamira, Caracas (2014)

The 2015 parliamentary elections were held on 6 December 2015 to elect the 164 deputies and three Indigenous representatives of the National Assembly. In 2014, a series of protest and demonstrations began in Venezuela, attributed[by whom?] to inflation, violence and shortages in Venezuela. The protests were largely peaceful.[205][better source needed] The government has accused the protest of being motivated by fascists, opposition leaders, capitalism and foreign influence,[206] President Maduro acknowledged PSUV defeat but attributed the opposition's victory to an intensification of an economic war. Despite this, Maduro said, "I will stop by hook or by crook the opposition coming to power, whatever the costs, in any way".[207] In the following months, Maduro fulfilled his promise of preventing the elected National Assembly from legislating. The first steps taken by PSUV and government were the substitution of the entire Supreme Court a day after the parliamentary elections,[208] contrary to the Constitution of Venezuela, acclaimed as a fraud by the majority of the Venezuelan and international press.[209][210][211][212] The Financial Times described the function of the Supreme Court in Venezuela as "rubber stamping executive whims and vetoing legislation".[213] The PSUV government used this violation to suspend several elected opponents.[214] Maduro said that "the Amnesty law (approved by the Parliament) will not be executed" and asked the Supreme Court to declare it unconstitutional.[215]

On 16 January 2016, Maduro approved an unconstitutional economic emergency decree,[216] relegating to his own figure the legislative and executive powers, while also holding judiciary power through the fraudulent designation of judges the day after the election on 6 December 2015.[208][209][210][212] From these events, Maduro effectively controls all three branches of government. On 14 May 2016, constitutional guarantees were in fact suspended when Maduro decreed the extension of the economic emergency decree for another 60 days and declared a State of Emergency,[217] which is a clear violation of the Constitution of Venezuela[218] in the Article 338th: "The approval of the extension of States of emergency corresponds to the National Assembly." Thus, constitutional rights in Venezuela are considered suspended in fact by many publications[219][220][221] and public figures.[222][223][224]

On 14 May 2016, the Organization of American States was considering the application of the Inter-American Democratic Charter[225] sanctions for non-compliance to its own constitution.

In March 2017, the Venezuelan Supreme Court took over law making powers from the National Assembly[226] but reversed its decision the following day.[227]

Foreign relations

The disputed "Guayana Esequiba" claim area is a territory administered by Guyana and historically claimed by Venezuela.

Throughout most of the 20th century, Venezuela maintained friendly relations with most Latin American and Western nations. Relations between Venezuela and the United States government worsened in 2002, after the 2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt during which the U.S. government recognized the short-lived interim presidency of Pedro Carmona. In 2015, Venezuela was declared a national security threat by U.S. president Barack Obama.[228][229][230] Correspondingly, ties to various Latin American and Middle Eastern countries not allied to the U.S. have strengthened.[citation needed]

Venezuela seeks alternative hemispheric integration via such proposals as the Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas trade proposal and the newly launched Latin American television network teleSUR. Venezuela is one of five nations in the world—along with Russia, Nicaragua, Nauru, and Syria—to have recognized the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Venezuela was a proponent of OAS's decision to adopt its Anti-Corruption Convention[231] and is actively working in the Mercosur trade bloc to push increased trade and energy integration. Globally, it seeks a "multi-polar" world based on strengthened ties among undeveloped countries.[citation needed]

President Maduro among other Latin American leaders participating in a 2017 ALBA gathering

On 26 April 2017, Venezuela announced its intention to withdraw from the OAS.[232] Venezuelan Foreign Minister Delcy Rodríguez said that President Nicolás Maduro plans to publicly renounce Venezuela's membership on 27 April 2017. It will take two years for the country to formally leave. During this period, the country does not plan on participating in the OAS.[233]

Venezuela is involved in a long-standing disagreement about the control of the Guayana Esequiba area.

Venezuela may suffer a deterioration of its power in international affairs if the global transition to renewable energy is completed. It is ranked 151 out of 156 countries in the index of Geopolitical Gains and Losses after energy transition (GeGaLo).[234]

Venezuela is a charter member of the United Nations (UN), Organization of American States (OAS), Union of South American Nations (UNASUR), Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America (ALBA), Mercosur, Latin American Integration Association (LAIA) and Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI).

Military

General-in-chief Vladimir Padrino López in his uniform with visible insignia
A Sukhoi Su-30MKV of the Venezuelan Air Force

The Bolivarian National Armed Forces (Fuerza Armada Nacional Bolivariana, FANB) are the unified military forces of Venezuela. It includes over 320,150 men and women, under Article 328 of the Constitution, in five components of ground, sea and air. The components of the FANB are: the Venezuelan Army, the Venezuelan Navy, the Venezuelan Air Force, the Venezuelan National Guard, and the Venezuelan National Militia. As of 2008, a further 600,000 soldiers were incorporated into a new branch, known as the Armed Reserve.

The president of Venezuela is the commander-in-chief of the FANB. Its main purposes are to defend the sovereign national territory of Venezuela, airspace, and islands, fight against drug trafficking, search and rescue and, in the case of a natural disaster, civil protection. All male citizens of Venezuela have a constitutional duty to register for the military service at 18, which is the age of majority.

Law and crime

Murder rate (murder per 100,000 citizens) from 1998 to 2018.
Sources: OVV,[235][236] PROVEA,[237][238] UN[237][238][239]
* UN line between 2007 and 2012 is simulated missing data.
Number of kidnappings in Venezuela 1989–2011.
Source: CICPC[240][241][242]
* Express kidnappings may not be included in data.

In Venezuela, a person is murdered every 21 minutes.[243] Violent crimes have been so prevalent in Venezuela that the government no longer produces the crime data.[244] In 2013, the homicide rate was approximately 79 per 100,000, one of the world's highest, having quadrupled in the past 15 years with over 200,000 people murdered.[245] By 2015, it had risen to 90 per 100,000.[246] The capital Caracas has one of the greatest homicide rates of any large city in the world, with 122 homicides per 100,000 residents.[247] In 2008, polls indicated that crime was the number one concern of voters.[248] Attempts at fighting crime such as Operation Liberation of the People were implemented to crack down on gang-controlled areas[249] but, of reported criminal acts, less than 2% are prosecuted.[250] In 2017, the Financial Times noted that some of the arms procured by the government over the previous two decades had been diverted to paramilitary civilian groups and criminal syndicates.[213]

Venezuela is especially dangerous for foreign travelers and investors who are visiting. The United States Department of State and the Government of Canada have warned foreign visitors that they may be subjected to robbery, kidnapping[251] and murder, and that their own diplomatic travelers are required to travel in armored vehicles.[252][253] The United Kingdom's Foreign and Commonwealth Office has advised against all travel to Venezuela.[254] Visitors have been murdered during robberies.[255][256]

There are approximately 33 prisons holding about 50,000 inmates.[257] Venezuela's prison system is heavily overcrowded; its facilities have capacity for only 14,000 prisoners.[258]

Human rights

Human rights organizations such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have increasingly criticized Venezuela's human rights record, with the former organization noting in 2017 that the Chavez and subsequently the Maduro government have increasingly concentrated power in the executive branch, eroded constitutional human rights protections and allowed the government to persecute and repress its critics and opposition.[259] Other persistent concerns as noted by the report included poor prison conditions, the continuous harassment of independent media and human rights defenders by the government. In 2006, the Economist Intelligence Unit rated Venezuela a "hybrid regime" and the third least democratic regime in Latin America on the Democracy Index.[260] The Democracy index downgraded Venezuela to an authoritarian regime in 2017, citing continued increasingly dictatorial behaviors by the Maduro government.[261]

Corruption

The Corrupt Venezuelan Regime, according to the United States Department of Justice

Corruption in Venezuela is high by world standards and was so for much of the 20th century. The discovery of oil worsened political corruption.[262] By the late 1970s, Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonso's description of oil as "the Devil's excrement" had become a common expression in Venezuela.[263] The Corruption Perceptions Index has ranked Venezuela as one of the most corrupt countries since the survey started in 1995. The 2010 ranking placed Venezuela at number 164, out of 178 ranked countries in government transparency.[264] By 2016, the rank had increased to 166 out of 178.[265] The World Justice Project ranked Venezuela 99th out of 99 countries surveyed in its 2014 Rule of Law Index.[266]

This corruption is shown with Venezuela's significant involvement in drug trafficking, with Colombian cocaine and other drugs transiting Venezuela towards the United States and Europe. In the period 2003–2008 Venezuelan authorities seized the fifth-largest total quantity of cocaine in the world, behind Colombia, the United States, Spain and Panama.[267] In 2006, the government's agency for combating illegal drug trade in Venezuela, ONA, was incorporated into the office of the vice-president. However, many major government and military officials have been known for their involvement with drug trafficking.[268]

Economy

Almost 82 per cent of Venezuelans live in poverty, with 53 per cent in extreme poverty, unable to buy even basic foodstuffs.

– A UN special rapporteur said in February 2024 after visiting the country.[269]

Venezuela was “once among South America's wealthiest countries” before the economic meltdown under Maduro regime.[270]

“The formerly rich petro-state has seen GDP fall by 80 percent in less than a decade, driving some seven million of its citizens to flee. Most Venezuelans live on just a few dollars a month, with the health care and education systems in total disrepair and biting shortages of electricity and fuel” as of 2024, according to VOA (report from AFP).[271]

The country has a market-based mixed economy dominated by the petroleum sector,[272][273] which accounts for roughly a third of GDP, around 80% of exports, and more than half of government revenues. Per capita GDP for 2016 was estimated to be US$15,100, ranking 109th in the world.[18] Venezuela has the least expensive petrol in the world because the consumer price of petrol is heavily subsidized. The private sector controls two-thirds of Venezuela's economy.[274]

A part of the Venezuelan economy depends on remittances.

The Central Bank of Venezuela is responsible for developing monetary policy for the Venezuelan bolívar which is used as currency. The president of the Central Bank of Venezuela serves as the country's representative in the International Monetary Fund. The U.S.-based conservative think tank The Heritage Foundation claims Venezuela has the weakest property rights in the world, scoring only 5.0 on a scale of 100; expropriation without compensation is not uncommon.

As of 2011, more than 60% of Venezuela's international reserves was in gold, eight times more than the average for the region. Most of Venezuela's gold held abroad was located in London. On 25 November 2011, the first of US$11 billion of repatriated gold bullion arrived in Caracas; Chávez called the repatriation of gold a "sovereign" step that will help protect the country's foreign reserves from the turmoil in the U.S. and Europe.[275] However government policies quickly spent down this returned gold and in 2013 the government was forced to add the dollar reserves of state owned companies to those of the national bank to reassure the international bond market.[276]

Annual variation of real GDP according to the Central Bank of Venezuela (2016 preliminary)[277][278]

Manufacturing contributed 17% of GDP in 2006. Venezuela manufactures and exports heavy industry products such as steel, aluminium and cement, with production concentrated around Ciudad Guayana, near the Guri Dam, one of the largest in the world and the provider of about three-quarters of Venezuela's electricity. Other notable manufacturing includes electronics and automobiles, as well as beverages, and foodstuffs. Agriculture in Venezuela accounts for approximately 3% of GDP, 10% of the labor force, and at least a quarter of Venezuela's land area. The country is not self-sufficient in most areas of agriculture.[citation needed]

Since the discovery of oil in the early 20th century, Venezuela has been one of the world's leading exporters of oil, and it is a founding member of OPEC. Previously an underdeveloped exporter of agricultural commodities, oil quickly came to dominate exports and government revenues. The 1980s oil glut led to an external debt crisis and a long-running economic crisis, which saw inflation peak at 100% in 1996.[279] The 1990s also saw Venezuela experience a major banking crisis in 1994.

Millenium Mall, one of the main shopping centers in Caracas

The recovery of oil prices after 2001 boosted the Venezuelan economy and facilitated social spending. With social programs such as the Bolivarian Missions, Venezuela initially made progress in social development in the 2000s, particularly in areas such as health, education, and poverty. Many of the social policies pursued by Chávez and his administration were jump-started by the Millennium Development Goals, eight goals that Venezuela and 188 other nations agreed to in September 2000.[280] The sustainability of the Bolivarian Missions has been questioned due to the Bolivarian state's overspending on public works and because the Chávez government did not save funds for future economic hardships, with economic issues and poverty rising as a result of their policies in the 2010s.[32][281][282] In 2003 the government of Hugo Chávez implemented currency controls after capital flight led to a devaluation of the currency. This led to the development of a parallel market of dollars in the subsequent years. The Great Recession led to a renewed economic downturn. Despite controversial data shared by the Venezuelan government showing that the country had halved malnutrition following one of the UN's Millennium Development Goals,[114][283] shortages of staple goods began to occur in Venezuela and malnutrition began to increase.[114]

Ángel Falls is one of Venezuela's top tourist attractions and the world's highest waterfall, located in the Canaima National Park.

In early 2013, Venezuela devalued its currency due to growing shortages in the country.[284][112] The shortages included, and still include, necessities such as toilet paper, milk, and flour.[113] Fears rose so high due to the toilet paper shortage that the government occupied a toilet paper factory, and continued plans to nationalize other industrial aspects like food distribution.[285][286] Venezuela's bond ratings have also decreased multiple times in 2013 due to decisions by the president Nicolás Maduro.[287] In 2016, consumer prices in Venezuela increased 800% and the economy declined by 18.6%, entering an economic depression.[288][289] Venezuela's outlook was deemed negative by most bond-rating services in 2017.[290][291] For 2018 an inflation rate of 1,000,000 percent was projected, putting Venezuela in a similar situation to that in Germany in 1923 or Zimbabwe in the late 2000s.[292]

Tourism

Tourism has been developed considerably in recent decades, particularly because of its favorable geographical position, the variety of landscapes, the richness of plant and wildlife, the culture and the tropical climate.

Margarita Island is one of the top tourist destinations. It is an island with a modern infrastructure, bordered by beaches suitable for extreme sports, and features castles, fortresses and churches of great cultural value.

Los Roques Archipelago is made up of a set of islands and keys that constitute one of the main tourist attractions in the country. With exotic crystalline beaches, Morrocoy is a national park, formed by small keys very close to the mainland, which have grown rapidly as one of the greatest tourist attractions in the Venezuelan Caribbean.[293]

Mochima National Park, Eastern Venezuela

Canaima National Park[294] extends over 30,000 km2 to the border with Guyana and Brazil; due to its size it is considered the sixth largest national park in the world. Its steep cliffs and waterfalls (including Angel Falls, which is the highest waterfall in the world, at 1,002 m) form spectacular landscapes.

The state of Mérida[295] is one of the main tourist centers of Venezuela. It has an extensive network of hotels not only in its capital city, but also throughout the state. Starting from the same city of Mérida is the longest and highest cable car in the world, which reaches the Pico Espejo of 4,765 m.

Shortages

Shortages in Venezuela have been prevalent following the enactment of price controls and other policies during the economic policy of the Hugo Chávez government.[296][297] Under the economic policy of the Nicolás Maduro government, greater shortages occurred due to the Venezuelan government's policy of withholding United States dollars from importers with price controls.[298]

Empty shelves in a store in Venezuela due to shortages in 2014

Shortages occur in regulated products, such as milk, various types of meat, coffee, rice, oil, flour, butter, and other goods including basic necessities like toilet paper, personal hygiene products, and even medicine.[296][299][300] As a result of the shortages, Venezuelans must search for food, wait in lines for hours and sometimes do without certain products.[301][302][303][304][305]

A drought, combined with a lack of planning and maintenance, has caused a hydroelectricity shortage. To deal with lack of power supply, in April 2016 the Maduro government announced rolling blackouts[306] and reduced the government workweek to only Monday and Tuesday.[307] A multi-university study found that, in 2016 alone, about 75% of Venezuelans lost weight due to hunger, with the average losing about 8.6 kg (19 lbs) due to the lack of food.[308] In March 2017, Venezuela began having shortages of gasoline in some regions.[309]

Petroleum and other resources

Venezuela's exports of crude oil from January 2018 to December 2019[310]

Venezuela has the largest oil reserves, and the eighth largest natural gas reserves in the world.[311] Compared to the preceding year another 40.4% in crude oil reserves were proven in 2010, allowing Venezuela to surpass Saudi Arabia as the country with the largest reserves of this type.[312] The country's main petroleum deposits are located around and beneath Lake Maracaibo, the Gulf of Venezuela (both in Zulia), and in the Orinoco River basin (eastern Venezuela), where the country's largest reserve is located. Besides the largest conventional oil reserves and the second-largest natural gas reserves in the Western Hemisphere,[313] Venezuela has non-conventional oil deposits (extra-heavy crude oil, bitumen and tar sands) approximately equal to the world's reserves of conventional oil.[314] The electricity sector in Venezuela is one of the few to rely primarily on hydropower, and includes the Guri Dam, one of the largest in the world.

In the first half of the 20th century, U.S. oil companies were heavily involved in Venezuela, initially interested only in purchasing concessions.[315] In 1943 a new government introduced a 50/50 split in profits between the government and the oil industry. In 1960, with a newly installed democratic government, Hydrocarbons Minister Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonso led the creation of OPEC, the consortium of oil-producing countries aiming to support the price of oil.[316]

A map of world oil reserves according to OPEC, 2013. Venezuela has the world's largest oil reserves.

In 1973, Venezuela voted to nationalize its oil industry outright, effective 1 January 1976, with Petróleos de Venezuela (PDVSA) taking over and presiding over a number of holding companies; in subsequent years, Venezuela built a vast refining and marketing system in the U.S. and Europe.[317] In the 1990s PDVSA became more independent from the government and presided over an apertura (opening) in which it invited in foreign investment. Under Hugo Chávez a 2001 law placed limits on foreign investment. PDVSA played a key role in the December 2002 – February 2003 national strike. As a result of the strike, around 40% of the company's workforce (around 18,000 workers) were dismissed.[318]

Infrastructure

Transport

Caracas Metro in Los Jardines Station

Venezuela is connected to the world primarily via air (Venezuela's airports include the Simón Bolívar International Airport in Maiquetía, near Caracas and La Chinita International Airport near Maracaibo) and sea (with major seaports at La Guaira, Maracaibo and Puerto Cabello). In the south and east the Amazon rainforest region has limited cross-border transport; in the west, there is a mountainous border of over 2,213 kilometres (1,375 mi) shared with Colombia. The Orinoco River is navigable by oceangoing vessels up to 400 kilometres (250 mi) inland and connects the major industrial city of Ciudad Guayana to the Atlantic Ocean.

Venezuela has a limited national railway system, which has no active rail connections to other countries. The government of Hugo Chávez tried to invest in expanding it, but Venezuela's rail project is on hold due to Venezuela not being able to pay the $7.5 billion[clarification needed] and owing China Railway nearly $500 million.[319] Several major cities have metro systems; the Caracas Metro has been operating since 1983. The Maracaibo Metro and Valencia Metro were opened more recently. Venezuela has a road network of nearly 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi), placing the country around 45th in the world;[320] around a third of roads are paved.

Utilities

The electricity sector in Venezuela is heavily dependent on hydroelectricity, with this energy source accounting for 64% of the country's electricity generation in 2021.[310]

Demographics

Venezuela is among the most urbanized countries in Latin America;[22][23] the vast majority of Venezuelans live in the cities of the north, especially in the capital Caracas, which is also the largest city. About 93% of the population lives in urban areas in northern Venezuela; 73% live less than 100 kilometres (62 mi) from the coastline.[321] Though almost half of Venezuela's land area lies south of the Orinoco, only 5% of Venezuelans live there. The largest and most important city south of the Orinoco is Ciudad Guayana, which is the sixth most populous conurbation.[322] Other major cities include Barquisimeto, Valencia, Maracay, Maracaibo, Barcelona-Puerto La Cruz, Mérida and San Cristóbal.

According to the 2022 revision of the World Population Prospects[323][324] the total population was 28,199,867 in 2021. A 2014 study by sociologists of the Central University of Venezuela found over 1.5 million Venezuelans, or about 4% to 6% of the country's population, have left Venezuela since 1999.[325][326]

Ethnicity

Map showing the proportion of the Venezuelan population which has the Spanish nationality or people who are residing in Venezuela which are declared as Spanish or people with declared Iberian Spanish ancestry

The people of Venezuela come from a variety of ancestries. It is estimated that the majority of the population is of pardo, or mixed, ethnic ancestry. In the 2011 census, which Venezuelans were asked to identify themselves according to their customs and ancestry, the term pardo was excluded from the answers. The majority claimed to be moreno or white—51.6% and 43.6%, respectively.[1] Slightly more than half of the population claimed to be moreno, a term used throughout Ibero-America that in this case means "dark-skinned" or "brown-skinned", as opposed to having a lighter skin.

Ethnic minorities in Venezuela consist of groups that descend mainly from African or Indigenous peoples; 2.8% identified themselves as "black" and 0.7% as afrodescendiente (Afro-descendant), 2.6% claimed to belong to Indigenous peoples, and 1.2% answered "other races".[1]

Among Indigenous people, 58% were Wayúu, 7% Warao, 5% Kariña, 4% Pemón, 3% Piaroa, 3% Jivi, 3% Añu, 3% Cumanágoto, 2% Yukpa, 2% Chaima and 1% Yanomami; the remaining 9% consisted of other Indigenous nations.[327]

According to an autosomal DNA study conducted in 2008 by the University of Brasília, the composition of Venezuela's population is 60.60% European, 23% Indigenous, and 16.30% African.[328]

Moreno (Mestizo) population of Venezuela in 2011
White population of Venezuela in 2011
Amerindian population of Venezuela in 2011
Black and Afrodescendant population of Venezuela in 2011

During the colonial period and until after the Second World War, many of the European immigrants to Venezuela came from the Canary Islands[329] and Spain[330] with a relevant amount of Galicians and Asturians. These immigrants from Spain had a significant cultural impact on the cuisine and customs of Venezuela.[331][332][333] These influences on Venezuela have led to the nation being called the 8th island of the Canaries.[334][335] With the start of oil exploitation in the early 20th century, companies from the United States began establishing operations in Venezuela, bringing with them U.S. citizens. Later, during and after the war, new waves of immigrants from other parts of Europe, the Middle East, and China began; many were encouraged by government-established immigration programs and lenient immigration policies.[336] During the 20th century, Venezuela, along with the rest of Latin America, received millions of immigrants from Europe.[337] This was especially true post-World War II, as a consequence of war-ridden Europe.[337][338] During the 1970s, while experiencing an oil-export boom, Venezuela received millions of immigrants from Ecuador, Colombia, and the Dominican Republic.[338] Due to the belief that this immigration influx depressed wages, some Venezuelans opposed European immigration.[338] The Venezuelan government, however, were actively recruiting immigrants from Eastern Europe to fill a need for engineers. Millions of Colombians, as well as Middle Eastern and Haitian populations would continue immigrating to Venezuela into the early 21st century.[336]

According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Venezuela hosted a population of refugee and asylum seekers from Colombia numbering 252,200 in 2007, and 10,600 new asylum seekers entered Venezuela in 2007.[339] Between 500,000 and one million illegal immigrants are estimated to be living in the country.[340]

The total Indigenous population of the country is estimated at 500 thousand people (2.8% of the total), distributed among 40 Indigenous peoples.[341] There are three uncontacted tribes living in Venezuela. The Constitution recognizes the multi-ethnic, pluri-cultural, and multilingual character of the country and includes a chapter devoted to Indigenous peoples' rights, which opened up spaces for their political inclusion at national and local level in 1999. Most Indigenous peoples are concentrated in eight states along Venezuela's borders with Brazil, Guyana, and Colombia, and the majority groups are the Wayuu in the west, the Warao in the east, the Yanomami installed in the south, and the Pemon which are mostly in the southeast of Venezuela.

Languages

Although most residents are monolingual Spanish speakers, many languages are spoken in Venezuela. In addition to Spanish, the Constitution recognizes more than thirty Indigenous languages, including Wayuu, Warao, Pemón, and many others for the official use of the Indigenous peoples, mostly with few speakers – less than 1% of the total population. Wayuu is the most spoken Indigenous language, with 170,000 speakers.[342]

The Venezuelan Academy of Language studies the development of the Spanish in the country.

Immigrants, in addition to Spanish, speak their own languages. Chinese (400,000), Portuguese (254,000),[342] and Italian (200,000)[343] are the most-spoken languages in Venezuela after the official language of Spanish. Arabic is spoken by Lebanese and Syrian colonies on Isla de Margarita, Maracaibo, Punto Fijo, Puerto la Cruz, El Tigre, Maracay, and Caracas. Portuguese is spoken not only by the Portuguese community in Santa Elena de Uairén but also by much of the population due to its proximity to Brazil.[344] The German community speaks their native language, while the people of Colonia Tovar speak mostly an Alemannic dialect of German called alemán coloniero.

English is the most widely used foreign language in demand and is spoken by many professionals, academics, and members of the upper and middle classes as a result of the oil exploration by foreign companies, in addition to its acceptance as a lingua franca. Culturally, English is common in southern towns like El Callao, and the native English-speaking (English-creole speaking) influence is evident in folk and calypso songs from the region. Various dialects of Eastern-Caribbean English-based creoles were brought to Venezuela by Trinidadian and other British West Indies immigrants,[345] they are collectively referred to as Venezuelan English Creole. A variety of Antillean Creole is spoken by a small community in El Callao and Paria.[346] Italian language teaching is delivered by private Venezuelan schools and institutions. Other languages spoken by large communities in the country are Basque and Galician, among others.

Religion

Religion in Venezuela (2011)[347]

  Catholic (71%)
  Protestant (17%)
  No religion (7%)
  Other religion (3%)
  No answer (1%)

According to a 2011 poll, 88% of the population is Christian, primarily Roman Catholic (71%), and the remaining 17% Protestant, primarily Evangelicals (in Latin America Protestants are usually called "evangélicos"). 8% of Venezuelans are irreligious. Almost 3% of the population follow another religion (1% of these people practice Santería).[347]

There are small but influential Muslim, Druze,[348][349] Buddhist, and Jewish communities. The Muslim community of more than 100,000 is concentrated among persons of Lebanese and Syrian descent living in Nueva Esparta state, Punto Fijo and the Caracas area. Venezuela is home of the largest Druze communities outside the Middle East,[350] the Druze community are estimated around 60,000,[350] and concentrated among persons of Lebanese and Syrian descent.[351][348] Buddhism is practiced by over 52,000 people. The Buddhist community is made up mainly of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean people.

The Jewish community has shrunk in recent years due to rising economic pressures and antisemitism in Venezuela,[352][353][354][355] with the population declining from 22,000 in 1999[356] to less than 7,000 in 2015.[357]

Health

University Hospital, Central University of Venezuela

Venezuela has a national universal health care system. The current government has created a program to expand access to health care known as Misión Barrio Adentro,[358][359] although its efficiency and work conditions have been criticized.[360][361][362] As of December 2014 an estimated 80% of Barrio Adentro establishments in Venezuela are abandoned.[363][364]

Infant mortality in Venezuela was 19 deaths per 1,000 births for 2014 which was lower than the South American average (To compare: The U.S. figure was 6 deaths per 1,000 births in 2013).[18] Child malnutrition was 17%. Delta Amacuro and Amazonas had the nation's highest rates.[365] According to the United Nations, 32% of Venezuelans lacked adequate sanitation, primarily those living in rural areas.[366] Diseases ranging from diphtheria, plague, malaria,[250] typhoid fever, yellow fever, cholera, hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and hepatitis D were present in the country.[367] Obesity was prevalent in approximately 30% of the adult population.[18]

Venezuela had a total of 150 sewage treatment plants; 13% of the population lacked access to drinking water, but this number had been dropping.[368][non-primary source needed]

During the economic crisis observed under President Maduro's presidency, medical professionals were forced to perform outdated treatments on patients.[369]

Education

Illiteracy rate in Venezuela based on data from UNESCO[370][371] and the Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE) of Venezuela[372]

In 2008, 95.2% of the adult population was literate.[373] The net primary school enrollment rate was at 91% and the net secondary school enrollment rate was at 63% in 2005.[373] Venezuela has a number of universities, of which the most prestigious are the Central University of Venezuela founded in 1721, the University of Zulia, the University of the Andes, Simón Bolívar University, and the University of the East.

Currently, many Venezuelan graduates seek a future abroad because of the country's troubled economy and heavy crime rate. Over 1.35 million Venezuelan college graduates have left the country since the beginning of the Bolivarian Revolution.[325][326] It is believed that nearly 12% of Venezuelans live abroad, with Ireland becoming a popular destination for students.[374] According to Claudio Bifano, president of the Venezuelan Academy of Physical, Mathematical, and Natural Sciences, more than half of all medical graduates had left Venezuela in 2013.[375]

By 2018, over half of all Venezuelan children had dropped out of school, with 58% of students quitting nationwide while areas near bordering countries saw more than 80% of their students leave.[376][377] Nationwide, about 93% of schools do not meet the minimum requirements to operate and 77% do not have utilities such as food, water or electricity.[377]

Culture

Música Llanera is the most popular folk genre, and the cowboy music, of Venezuela. Depiction of a Llanera band in 1912.

The culture of Venezuela is a melting pot made up of three main groups: The Indigenous Venezuelans, the Africans, and the Spanish.

The Africans brought in many musical influences, especially introduction of the drum. The Spanish influence predominantes due to the colonization process and the socioeconomic structure it created. Spanish influences can be seen in the country's architecture, music, religion, and language.

Venezuela was also enriched by immigration streams of Indian and European origin in the 19th century, especially from France. Most recently, immigration from the United States, Spain, Italy, and Portugal has enriched the already complex cultural mosaic.[citation needed]

Architecture

Carlos Raúl Villanueva[378] was the most important Venezuelan architect of the modern era; he designed the Central University of Venezuela, (a World Heritage Site) and its Aula Magna. Other notable architectural works include the Capitolio, the Baralt Theatre, the Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex, and the General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge. In Venezuela, prehistoric man began to build useful architecture from approximately 1000 BC to the 15th century AD, in the period known as the "Neo-Indian". Neo-Indian architecture consisted of incipient constructions, such as agricultural terraces and vaults lined by stones, called mintoyes, which were used as tombs and silos for the storage of agricultural products. The Indo-Hispanic architecture is the one that begins to develop from the year 1498 AD.[379] Venezuelan colonial architecture is built from the 16th century, when Venezuela began to be a dependent colony of the Spanish Empire,[380] until 1810, when the process of Venezuelan independence began.

The architecture of this period is characterized by its discreet modesty, with the exception of some cities. The explanation lies in the socioeconomic conditions of the country. Venezuela did not offer then to the colonizers the immense riches kept by nature for later times. The simplification of technical problems, the renunciation of most of the decorative elements and variegated ostentations of fanciful baroque, the impossibility of using expensive materials and the consequent lack of craftsmen, contributed to establish a modest but well-defined physiognomy of the colonial architecture of Venezuela. During the colonial period, there were eventually confrontations between the Spanish conquerors and the barbarians and pirates that sailed along the Venezuelan coasts, in order to take over the provinces located on the coasts of the country.

Christian temples from the colonial era were constituted by an almost invariable, arrangement consisting of a rectangular plan, three naves separated by arches of alfarje roofing composed of religious architecture in colonial times. The Venezuelan society dedicated a great amount of resources to erect religious monuments comparable to those of other countries of the continent. The XVII century was of reconstruction of the Catholic churches that had been destroyed by the earthquake of 1641. In the 18th century, specifically between 1728 and 1785, the prosperity that Venezuela enjoyed due to the opening of the Compañía Guipuzcoana de Caracas[381] was also reflected in the construction of new architecture, especially of a religious nature.

Art

Antonio Herrera Toro, self portrait 1880

Venezuelan art was initially dominated by religious motifs. However, in the late 19th century, artists began emphasizing historical and heroic representations of the country's struggle for independence.[384][385] This move was led by Martín Tovar y Tovar.[385][386] Modernism took over in the 20th century.[386] Notable Venezuelan artists include Arturo Michelena, Cristóbal Rojas, Armando Reverón, Manuel Cabré; the kinetic artists Jesús Soto, Gego and Carlos Cruz-Diez;[386] and contemporary artists such as Marisol and Yucef Merhi.[387][388]

Literature

Venezuelan literature originated soon after the Spanish conquest of the mostly pre-literate Indigenous societies.[389] It was originally dominated by Spanish influences. Following the rise of political literature during the Venezuelan War of Independence, Venezuelan Romanticism, notably expounded by Juan Vicente González, emerged as the first important genre in the region. Although mainly focused on narrative writing, Venezuelan literature was advanced by poets such as Andrés Eloy Blanco and Fermín Toro.

Major writers and novelists include Rómulo Gallegos, Teresa de la Parra, Arturo Uslar Pietri, Adriano González León, Miguel Otero Silva, and Mariano Picón Salas. The great poet and humanist Andrés Bello was also an educator and intellectual (He was also a childhood tutor and mentor of Simón Bolívar). Others, such as Laureano Vallenilla Lanz and José Gil Fortoul, contributed to Venezuelan Positivism.

Music

The Guanaguanare dance, a popular dance in Portuguesa State

The Indigenous musical styles of Venezuela are exemplified by groups like Un Solo Pueblo and Serenata Guayanesa. The national musical instrument is the cuatro. Traditional musical styles and songs mainly emerged in and around the llanos region, including "Alma llanera" (by Pedro Elías Gutiérrez and Rafael Bolívar Coronado), "Florentino y el diablo" (by Alberto Arvelo Torrealba), "Concierto en la llanura" by Juan Vicente Torrealba, and "Caballo viejo" (by Simón Díaz).

The Zulian gaita is also a very popular genre, generally performed during Christmas. The national dance is the joropo.[390] Venezuela has always been a melting pot of cultures and this can be seen in the richness and variety of its musical styles and dances: calipso, bambuco, fulía, cantos de pilado de maíz, cantos de lavanderas, sebucán, and maremare.[391] Teresa Carreño was a world-famous 19th century piano virtuoso. Recently, great classical music performances have come out of Venezuela. The Simón Bolívar Youth Orchestra has hosted a number of excellent concerts in many European concert halls, most notably at the 2007 London Proms, and has received several honors. The orchestra is the pinnacle of El Sistema, a publicly financed, voluntary music education program now being emulated in other countries.

In the early 21st century, a movement known as "Movida Acústica Urbana" featured musicians trying to save some national traditions, creating their own original songs but using traditional instruments.[392][393] Some groups following this movement are Tambor Urbano,[394] Los Sinverguenzas, C4Trío, and Orozco Jam.[395]

Afro-Venezuelan musical traditions are most intimately related to the festivals of the "black folk saints" San Juan and St. Benedict the Moor. Specific songs are related to the different stages of their festivals and processions, when the saints start their yearly "paseo" – stroll – through the community.

Sport

The origins of baseball in Venezuela are unclear, although it is known that the sport was being played in the country by the late 19th century.[396] In the early 20th century, North American immigrants who came to Venezuela to work in the nation's oil industry helped to popularize the sport in Venezuela.[397] During the 1930s, baseball's popularity continued to rise in the country, leading to the foundation of the Venezuelan Professional Baseball League (LVBP) in 1945, and the sport would soon become the nation's most popular.[398][399]

The popularity of baseball in the country makes Venezuela a rarity among its South American neighbors—association football is the dominant sport in the continent.[397][399][400] However, football, as well as basketball, are among the more popular sports played in Venezuela.[401] Venezuela hosted the 2012 Basketball World Olympic Qualifying Tournament and the 2013 FIBA Basketball Americas Championship, which took place in the Poliedro de Caracas.

Although not as popular in Venezuela as the rest of South America, football, spearheaded by the Venezuela national football team is gaining popularity as well. The sport is also noted for having an increased focus during the World Cup.[401] Venezuela is scheduled to host the Copa América every 40 years.[402]

Venezuela is also home to former Formula 1 driver, Pastor Maldonado.[403] Maldonado has increased the reception of Formula 1 in Venezuela, helping to popularize the sport in the country.[404]

In the 2012 Summer Olympics, Rubén Limardo won a gold medal in fencing.[405]

In the Winter Sports, Cesar Baena had represented the country since 2008 in Nordic Skiing, the first South American skier to compete in a FIS Cross Country Ski World Cup on Düsseldorf 2009.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Venezuela has been described as authoritarian by multiple sources.[3][4][5][6][7]
  2. ^ Venezuela has been described as a dictatorship by multiple sources.[8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]
  3. ^ English: /ˌvɛnəˈzwlə/ VEN-ə-ZWAY-lə, Latin American Spanish: [beneˈswela] .
  4. ^ Spanish: República Bolivariana de Venezuela.

References

  1. ^ a b c "Resultado Básico del XIV Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda 2011 (Mayo 2014)" (PDF). ine.gov.ve. p. 29. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 August 2019. Retrieved 8 September 2014.
  2. ^ "National Profiles". Archived from the original on 13 October 2022. Retrieved 13 October 2022.
  3. ^ a b Isidoro Losada, Ana María; Bitar Deeb, Rita (January 2022). "Introduction: Authoritarianism and Violence in Venezuela". Bulletin of Latin American Research. 41 (1): 102–104. doi:10.1111/blar.13316. eISSN 1470-9856. ISSN 0261-3050. S2CID 246773739. Archived from the original on 18 June 2023. Retrieved 11 May 2023.
  4. ^ Corrales, Javier (2020). "Authoritarian Survival: Why Maduro Hasn't Fallen". Journal of Democracy. 31 (3). Project Muse: 39–53. doi:10.1353/jod.2020.0044. ISSN 1086-3214. S2CID 226738491.
  5. ^ "The Path Toward Authoritarianism in Venezuela", Political Science, Oxford University Press, 30 October 2019, doi:10.1093/obo/9780199756223-0286, ISBN 978-0-19-975622-3
  6. ^ Corrales, J. (2022). Autocracy Rising: How Venezuela Transitioned to Authoritarianism. G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Brookings Institution Press. p. intro. ISBN 978-0-8157-3807-7.
  7. ^ "Battling Authoritarian Regimes in Venezuela and Beyond: A Conversation with Venezuelan Opposition Leader Leopoldo López". David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies. 25 April 2022. Archived from the original on 13 January 2023. Retrieved 13 January 2023.
  8. ^ Turkewitz, Julie (30 July 2024). "What Happened to Venezuela's Democracy?". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 30 July 2024. Retrieved 2 August 2024.
  9. ^ Roy, Diana; Cheatham, Amelia (31 July 2024). "Venezuela: The Rise and Fall of a Petrostate". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 8 August 2024. Retrieved 8 August 2024. The reforms paved the way for Maduro to establish a dictatorship years after Chávez's death.
  10. ^ Corrales, Javier. "Venezuela's Odd Transition to Dictatorship". Americas Quarterly. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 10 December 2016.
  11. ^ Brodzinsky, Sibylla (21 October 2016). "Venezuelans warn of 'dictatorship' after officials block bid to recall Maduro". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 9 December 2016. Retrieved 10 December 2016.
  12. ^ "Almagro: Maduro se transforma en dictador por negarles a venezolanos derecho a decidir su futuro". CNN en Español (in Spanish). 24 August 2016. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 10 December 2016.
  13. ^ a b c "Venezuela's Maduro decried as 'dictator' after Congress annulled". Reuters. 31 March 2017. Archived from the original on 27 April 2017. Retrieved 26 April 2017.
  14. ^ a b José Miguel Vivanco (31 March 2017). "Venezuela's crumbling façade of democracy". Human Rights Watch. Archived from the original on 27 July 2017. Retrieved 18 July 2017. This ruling is the end of Maduro administration's façade of democracy.
  15. ^ a b Francisco Toro (21 October 2016). "It's official: Venezuela is a full-blown dictatorship". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 18 July 2017.
  16. ^ "Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)'s Constitution of 1999 with Amendments through 2009" (PDF). constituteproject.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 21 October 2020.
  17. ^ "Venezuela country profile". BBC News. 4 December 2023. Archived from the original on 4 December 2023. Retrieved 4 December 2023.
  18. ^ a b c d e f g "Venezuela". CIA World Factbook. Archived from the original on 31 May 2021. Retrieved 3 February 2021.
  19. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Venezuela)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Archived from the original on 8 November 2023. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
  20. ^ "Income Gini coefficient". undp.org. United Nations Development Programme. Archived from the original on 10 June 2010. Retrieved 21 September 2015.
  21. ^ "Human Development Report 2023/2024" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
  22. ^ a b "South America". Encarta. Archived from the original on 21 April 2007. Retrieved 13 March 2007.
  23. ^ a b "Annex tables" (PDF). World Urbanization Prospects: The 1999 Revision. United Nations. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 August 2003. Retrieved 13 March 2007.
  24. ^ "The Legacy of Hugo Chavez and a Failing Venezuela". publicpolicy.wharton.upenn.edu. Wharton Public Policy Initiative, University of Pennsylvania. Archived from the original on 24 April 2019. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
  25. ^ Smilde, David (14 September 2017). "Crime and Revolution in Venezuela". NACLA Report on the Americas. 49 (3): 303–308. doi:10.1080/10714839.2017.1373956. ISSN 1071-4839. S2CID 158528940. Finally, it is important to realize that the reductions in poverty and inequality during the Chávez years were real, but somewhat superficial. While indicators of income and consumption showed clear progress, the harder-to-change characteristics of structural poverty and inequality, such as the quality of housing, neighborhoods, education, and employment, remained largely unchanged.
  26. ^
  27. ^ a b Charlie Devereux & Raymond Colitt. 7 March 2013. "Venezuelans' Quality of Life Improved in UN Index Under Chavez". Bloomberg.com. Archived from the original on 7 November 2014. Retrieved 7 March 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  28. ^ Nagel, Juan Cristóbal (4 June 2014). "Poverty Shoots Up in Venezuela". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 20 March 2018. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
  29. ^ 남민우, 기 (2 May 2018). 화폐경제 무너졌는데…최저임금 인상에 목매는 베네수엘라 [The monetary economy collapsed... Venezuela clamors for minimum wage hike]. 朝鮮日報 (The Chosun Ilbo) (in Korean). Archived from the original on 12 September 2019. Retrieved 22 May 2018 – via chosun.com. Venezuela's fall is considered to be mainly caused by the populist policy
  30. ^ "World Report 2022: Rights Trends in Venezuela". Human Rights Watch. 10 December 2021. Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 19 January 2023.
  31. ^ "Fuel subsidies have contributed to Venezuela's economic crisis". chinadialogue.net. 29 March 2016. Archived from the original on 15 April 2016. Retrieved 12 July 2017.
  32. ^ a b Scharfenberg, Ewald (1 February 2015). "Volver a ser pobre en Venezuela". El Pais. Archived from the original on 27 June 2017. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
  33. ^ Rosati, Andrew (9 October 2018). "Venezuela's 2018 Inflation to Hit 1.37 Million Percent, IMF Says". Bloomberg.com. Archived from the original on 9 October 2018. Retrieved 9 October 2018.
  34. ^ "IMF sees Venezuela inflation at 10 million percent in 2019". Reuters. 9 October 2018. Archived from the original on 26 January 2019. Retrieved 3 June 2019 – via in.reuters.com.
  35. ^  • Gillespie, Patrick (12 April 2016). "Venezuela: the land of 500% inflation". CNNMoney. Archived from the original on 19 January 2017. Retrieved 17 January 2017.
     • Gillespie, Patrick (12 December 2016). "Venezuela shuts border with Colombia as cash crisis escalates". CNNMoney. Archived from the original on 17 January 2017. Retrieved 17 January 2017.
     • Rosati, Andrew (11 January 2017). "Venezuela's Economy Was the Worst Performing of 2016, IMF Estimates". Bloomberg.com. Archived from the original on 17 January 2017. Retrieved 17 January 2017.
  36. ^ "Chamber of Commerce: 80% of Venezuelans are in poverty". El Universal. 1 April 2016. Archived from the original on 4 April 2016. Retrieved 4 April 2016.
  37. ^ Herrero, Ana Vanessa; Malkin, Elisabeth (16 January 2017). "Venezuela Issues New Bank Notes Because of Hyperinflation". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 20 December 2019. Retrieved 17 January 2017.
  38. ^ "Venezuela situation". UNHCR. Archived from the original on 21 July 2024. Retrieved 26 July 2024.
  39. ^ "Refugees and Migrants from Venezuela". Regional Inter-Agency Coordination Platform for Refugees and Migrants from Venezuela (R4V). Archived from the original on 26 July 2024. Retrieved 26 July 2024.
  40. ^ Gillespie, Patrick (14 November 2017). "Venezuela just defaulted, moving deeper into crisis". CNNMoney. Archived from the original on 12 January 2020. Retrieved 15 November 2017.
  41. ^ "Venezuela in 'selective default'". BBC News. 14 November 2017. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 15 November 2017.
  42. ^ John, Tara; Pozzbon, Stefano; Alberti, Mia; Hansler, Jennifer; Schmitz, Avery (29 July 2024). "Protests erupt in Venezuela as questions grow over strongman Maduro's victory". CNN. Retrieved 8 August 2024.
  43. ^ Massabié 2008, p. 153.
  44. ^ Thomas 2005, p. 189.
  45. ^ Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos (in Spanish). Instituto de Cultura Hispánica (Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional). 1958. p. 386.
  46. ^ Kipfer 2000, p. 91.
  47. ^ Kipfer 2000, p. 172.
  48. ^ a b c d e Wunder 2003, p. 130.
  49. ^ Mahoney, p. 89.
  50. ^ "Venezuela". Archived 4 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine Friends of the Pre-Columbian Art Museum. (retrieved 9 July 2011)
  51. ^ Salas 2004, p. 142.
  52. ^ Dickey 1892, p. 103.
  53. ^ Zamora 1993, Voyage to Paradise.
  54. ^ "Little Venice"; additionally the etymology of the name "Venezuela"
  55. ^ Cachero, Montserrat. "The Court and the Jungle: Integrating Narratives of Privilege". Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 4 November 2022.
  56. ^ Ulrich Zwack, Bayerischer Rundfunk (5 August 2015). "Albtraum von Eldorado: Als die Welser über Venezuela herrschten" (in German). Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 4 November 2022.
  57. ^ Routledge Library Editions: World Empires (2021). United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.
  58. ^ South American Explorer. (1979). Perù: South American Explorers, p.27. University of Texas.
  59. ^ "Alcaldía del Hatillo: Historia" (in Spanish). Universidad Nueva Esparta. Archived from the original on 28 April 2006. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
  60. ^ Gott 2005, p. 203.
  61. ^ Ewell 1984, p. 4.
  62. ^ Minster, Christopher. "April 19, 1810: Venezuela's Declaration of Independence". About. Archived from the original on 3 February 2017. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
  63. ^ Chasteen 2001, p. 103.
  64. ^ Left, Sarah (16 April 2002). "Simon Bolivar". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
  65. ^ a b Gregory 1992, pp. 89–90.
  66. ^ Langer's Encyclopaedia of World History, page 854.
  67. ^ "History of Venezuela". History World. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
  68. ^ McFarlane, Anthony (2013). War and Independence In Spanish America. Routledge. p. 293. ISBN 978-1-136-75772-3. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. Retrieved 18 February 2019.
  69. ^ a b "Venezuela – The Century of Caudillismo Archived 5 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine". Library of Congress Country Studies.
  70. ^ "200 años como símbolo de soberanía" (in Spanish). Consulado General de Venezuela en Canarias. Archived from the original on 17 September 2010. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
  71. ^ Zakaria 1999, pp. 145–146.
  72. ^ Humphreys, R. A. (1966). "Anglo-American Rivalries and the Venezuela Crisis of 1895. Presidential Address to the Royal Historical Society". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. 17: 131–164. doi:10.2307/3678723. ISSN 0080-4401. JSTOR 3678723. S2CID 155581308.
  73. ^ Stauffer, Karl W.; Croft, Gregory D. (1995). "A modern look at the petroleum geology of the Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela". Oil & Gas Journal. 93 (23). Archived from the original on 3 October 2017. Retrieved 3 October 2017.
  74. ^ Crow 1980, pp. 616–617.
  75. ^ DURAND J; MASSEY DS (2010). "New World Orders: Continuities and Changes in Latin American Migration". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 630 (1): 20–52. doi:10.1177/0002716210368102. PMC 2931359. PMID 20814591.
  76. ^ Da Silva P, José Luis (2013). "Venezuelan Democracy in the 20th Century. The Struggle Between the Military and the Non–Military". Politeja. 10 (24): 49–68. doi:10.12797/politeja.10.2013.24.05. ISSN 1733-6716. S2CID 155380658.
  77. ^ Davilaa, Luis Ricardo (April 2000). "The rise and fall and rise of populism in Venezuela". Bulletin of Latin American Research. 19 (2): 223–238. doi:10.1111/j.1470-9856.2000.tb00101.x. ISSN 0261-3050. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. Retrieved 23 February 2021.
  78. ^ Schuyler, George W. (2001). "Health and Neoliberalism: Venezuela and Cuba". The Policy Studies Organization: 10.
  79. ^ Conde, Edith Mabel Cuñarro (2004). "Venezuela 1984–1999: 15 años de historia (La Comisión Presidencial para la Reforma del Estado (COPRE) como mecanismo de innovación política)". Cuestiones Políticas (in Spanish). 20 (33). ISSN 0798-1406. Archived from the original on 9 April 2018. Retrieved 8 April 2018.
  80. ^ Rivero, Mirtha (2010). "10". La Rebelión de los Náufragos. Caracas, Venezuela: Editorial Alfa. p. 109. ISBN 978-980-354-295-5.
  81. ^ Marquez 2018, p. 124
  82. ^ a b "Profile: Hugo Chavez". BBC News. 5 December 2002. Archived from the original on 18 May 2007. Retrieved 5 June 2007. Mr Chavez first came to prominence in February 1992 when he led an attempt to overthrow the government of President Carlos Andres Perez amid growing anger at economic austerity measures.
  83. ^ The coup installed chamber of commerce leader Pedro Carmona."Profile: Pedro Carmona". BBC News. 27 May 2002. Archived from the original on 23 September 2013. Retrieved 6 February 2009.
  84. ^ Cannon 2004, p. 295.
  85. ^ López Maya 2005, p. 16.
  86. ^ "Minister: 2002–2003 strike cost PDVSA US$12.8bn – BNamericas". 27 July 2005. Archived from the original on 4 October 2017. Retrieved 3 October 2017.
  87. ^ "Venezuela devalues currency against US dollar" Archived 14 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Aljazeera.com (9 February 2013). Retrieved on 20 April 2013.
  88. ^ "The bill for years of mismanagement is coming due" Archived 11 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Ft.com (12 February 2013). Retrieved on 20 April 2013.
  89. ^ a b "Venezuela The homecoming" Archived 1 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Economist.com (23 February 2013). Retrieved on 20 April 2013.
  90. ^ a b Farzad, Roben. (15 February 2013) "Venezuela's Double-Edged Devaluation". Businessweek.com. Retrieved on 20 April 2013.
  91. ^ Mander, Benedict. (10 February 2013) "Venezuelan devaluation sparks panic" Archived 11 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Ft.com. Retrieved on 20 April 2013.
  92. ^ Boyd, Sebastian (7 October 2014). "How Venezuela Got No Dollars From $65 Billion Bond Sales". Bloomberg.com. Archived from the original on 9 October 2014. Retrieved 8 October 2014.
  93. ^ Neuman, William (5 March 2013) "Chávez Dies, Leaving Sharp Divisions in Venezuela" Archived 29 November 2023 at the Wayback Machine. New York Times.
  94. ^ Venezuelan Politics and Human Rights Archived 7 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Venezuelablog.tumblr.com. Retrieved on 20 April 2013.
  95. ^ a b "From riches to rags: Venezuela's economic crisis: The Big Picture". Al Jazeera. 14 February 2018. Archived from the original on 1 March 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
  96. ^ Board, Editorial (23 February 2018). "Opinion | Latin-America's worst-ever refugee crisis: Venezuelans". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 24 February 2018. Retrieved 25 February 2018. This human outflow, ... is the largest displacement of people in Latin American history
  97. ^ "Gracias a las malas políticas del Gobierno bolivariano, más de 4 millones de venezolanos se han ido del país (encuesta)". La Patilla (in European Spanish). 19 January 2018. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
  98. ^ Forero, Juan; Protti, Tommaso (13 February 2018). "Venezuela's Misery Fuels Migration on Epic Scale". Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 15 January 2021. Retrieved 13 February 2018.
  99. ^ "Hugo Chávez and the Future of Venezuela". 4 December 2011. Archived from the original on 29 October 2020. Retrieved 26 October 2020.
  100. ^ Naranjo, Andrew Cawthorne and Mario (9 December 2012). "FACTBOX – Chavez's chosen successor Nicolas Maduro". Reuters. Archived from the original on 4 October 2017. Retrieved 3 October 2017.
  101. ^ Watts, Virginia Lopez Jonathan (15 April 2013). "Nicolás Maduro narrowly wins Venezuelan presidential election". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 21 January 2018. Retrieved 29 January 2018 – via www.theguardian.com.
  102. ^ "Venezuela audit confirms Nicolas Maduro electoral victory". BBC News. 12 June 2013. Archived from the original on 16 June 2013. Retrieved 18 June 2013.
  103. ^ Carroll, Rory; Lopez, Virginia (9 March 2013). "Venezuelan opposition challenges Nicolás Maduro's legitimacy". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 24 June 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
  104. ^ Minaya, Ezequiel; Vyas, Kejal (23 February 2014). "Protesters in Venezuela Press Government". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 25 February 2014. Retrieved 12 April 2014.
  105. ^ "Venezuelans protest en masse in rival rallies". Borneo Post. 24 February 2014. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 12 April 2014.
  106. ^ Kurmanaev, Anatoly (7 November 2013). "Venezuela Inflation Hits 16-Year High as Shortages Rise". Bloomberg.com. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 16 February 2014.
  107. ^ a b Wallis, Daniel; Chinea, Eyanir (16 February 2014). "Venezuela's Lopez says ready for arrest at Tuesday march". reuters.com. Thomson Reuters. Archived from the original on 17 February 2014. Retrieved 16 February 2014.
  108. ^ "Venezuela HRF Declares Leopoldo Lopez a Prisoner of Conscience and Calls for his Immediate Release". Human Rights Foundation.[permanent dead link]
  109. ^ "Sebin se lleva detenido al alcalde Antonio Ledezma". La Patilla. Archived from the original on 20 February 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  110. ^ "Venezuela: Human rights groups reject condemnation of jailed Leopoldo Lopez as 'baseless'". International Business Times UK. 11 September 2015. Archived from the original on 14 November 2015. Retrieved 17 November 2015.
  111. ^ Rosati, Andrew; Soto, Noris (6 December 2015). "Venezuela Seen Handing Congress to Opposition in Sunday Vote". Bloomberg.com. Archived from the original on 6 December 2015. Retrieved 22 August 2016.
  112. ^ a b Minaya, Ezequiel; Vyas, Kejal (9 February 2013). "Venezuela Slashes Currency Value". Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 12 January 2014. Retrieved 14 December 2013.
  113. ^ a b Lopez, Virginia (26 September 2013). "Venezuela food shortages: 'No one can explain why a rich country has no food'". theguardian.com. Archived from the original on 25 July 2016. Retrieved 30 December 2013.
  114. ^ a b c "Let them eat Chavismo The UN honours Venezuela for curbing hunger—which is actually getting worse". The Economist. 20 June 2015. Archived from the original on 12 July 2015. Retrieved 22 July 2015.
  115. ^ "Venezuela". Massachusetts Institute of Technology: The Observatory of Economic Complexity. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 5 February 2019. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 5 February 2019.
  116. ^ Neuman, William; Krauss, Clifford (14 June 2018). "Workers Flee and Thieves Loot Venezuela's Reeling Oil Giant". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 14 June 2018. Retrieved 15 June 2018.
  117. ^ Buitrago, Deisy (17 April 2018). "Under military rule, Venezuela oil workers quit in a stampede". Reuters. Archived from the original on 29 September 2019. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
  118. ^ Yergin, Daniel (4 February 2019). "Maduro Wrecked Venezuela's Oil Industry". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 5 February 2019. Retrieved 5 February 2019.
  119. ^ Pons, Corina; Cawthorne, Andrew (30 December 2014). "Recession-hit Venezuela vows New Year reforms, foes scoff". Reuters. Archived from the original on 25 March 2017. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  120. ^ Cristóbal Nagel, Juan (13 July 2015). "Looking Into the Black Box of Venezuela's Economy". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 11 June 2019. Retrieved 14 July 2015.
  121. ^ "With executive order, Trump imposes new round of Venezuela sanctions". USA Today. 25 August 2017. Archived from the original on 1 March 2019. Retrieved 25 January 2019.
  122. ^ "Dollars Are Out, Euros Are In as U.S. Sanctions Sting Venezuela". Bloomberg.com. 16 October 2018. Archived from the original on 17 June 2019. Retrieved 25 January 2019.
  123. ^ Wroughton, Lesley; Ellsworth, Brian (25 September 2018). "U.S. sanctions Venezuela officials, Trump slams Maduro". Reuters. Archived from the original on 25 January 2019. Retrieved 25 January 2019.
  124. ^ "Venezuela's economic nightmare takes an ugly turn". CNN Money. 14 March 2014. Archived from the original on 28 May 2014. Retrieved 28 May 2014.
  125. ^ Garreau, Simone (12 May 2014). "Venezuelan Oil Dynamics: Why The Protests Matter". Forbes. Archived from the original on 26 July 2014. Retrieved 28 May 2014.
  126. ^ "Venezuela crisis: How the political situation escalated". BBC. 12 August 2021. Archived from the original on 12 December 2019. Retrieved 15 September 2021.
  127. ^ Cawthorne, Andrew; Ulmer, Alexandra (15 January 2016). "Venezuela decrees 'economic emergency,' reveals depth of crisis". Reuters. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
  128. ^ "Thousands Of Venezuelans Cross Into Colombia In Search Of Food And Medicine". The Huffington Post. 17 July 2016. Archived from the original on 21 July 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  129. ^ "Hambre en Venezuela: El 15,7% de los venezolanos se ha alimentado de residuos". Diario Las Américas. 9 September 2016. Archived from the original on 11 September 2016. Retrieved 9 September 2016.
  130. ^ "Man claims son was eaten by fellow inmates during riot in Venezuelan prison". Fox News. 14 October 2016. Archived from the original on 14 October 2016. Retrieved 15 October 2016.
  131. ^ Casey, Nicholas; Herrero, Ana Vanessa (1 August 2017). "Jailings Raise Fears of Dictatorship in Venezuela". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 August 2017. Retrieved 2 August 2017.
  132. ^ "Venezuela's Nicolas Maduro bans opposition parties from election". The Telegraph. Agence France-Presse. 11 December 2017. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022 – via www.telegraph.co.uk.
  133. ^ Charner, Flora; Newton, Paula; Gallón, Natalie (21 May 2018). "Opponents slam Venezuelan President Nicolas Maduro's election victory as a sham". CNN. Archived from the original on 13 November 2018. Retrieved 13 November 2018. An alliance of 14 Latin American nations and Canada, known as the Lima Group, released a statement Monday calling the vote illegitimate... The alliance includes Argentina, Mexico, Canada, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Panama, Paraguay, St. Lucia, Guyana, Peru, Honduras, Guatemala and Costa Rica.
  134. ^ Jones, Sam; Wintour, Patrick (4 February 2019). "EU countries recognise Juan Guaidó as interim Venezuelan leader". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 13 January 2021. Retrieved 4 February 2019.
  135. ^ Rapalo, Manuel (26 January 2019). "Mexico stays neutral in Venezuela political crisis". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 3 February 2019. Retrieved 4 February 2019.
  136. ^ Roth, Andrew; Kuo, Lily; Agren, David; Augustin, Ed; Walker, Peter (24 January 2019). "Russia and key allies vow to stand by Maduro in Venezuela crisis". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 24 January 2019. Retrieved 25 January 2019.
  137. ^ "Russia, Turkey, China denounce US interference in Venezuela". Al Jazeera. 25 January 2019. Archived from the original on 24 January 2019. Retrieved 25 January 2019.
  138. ^ Lau, Stuart (2 February 2019). "Self-declared leader of Venezuela Juan Guaido extends olive branch to China, wants 'productive and mutually beneficial relationship'". The South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 4 February 2019. Retrieved 5 February 2019.
     • Page, Jeremy (1 February 2019). "China Counts the Costs of Its Big Bet on Venezuela". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 6 February 2019. Retrieved 6 February 2019.
     • Meyer, Henry; Arkhipov, Ilya (6 February 2019). "Russia Starts to Worry Maduro's Grip Is Slipping in Venezuela". The Moscow Times. Archived from the original on 6 February 2019. Retrieved 6 February 2019.
     • Gedan, Benjamin (27 November 2018). "China's Venezuela Policy Is Losing Popularity – in China". America's Quarterly. Archived from the original on 9 February 2019. Retrieved 8 February 2019.
     • Lo, Kinling (9 February 2019). "From oil to infrastructure, why China has plenty to lose from political turmoil in Venezuela". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 12 February 2019. Retrieved 11 February 2019.
  139. ^ "OAS Permanent Council Agrees "to not recognize the legitimacy of Nicolas Maduro's new term"". www.oas.org (Press release). OAS – Organization of American States. 10 January 2019. Archived from the original on 24 January 2019. Retrieved 24 January 2019.
  140. ^ Paul LeBlanc (6 August 2019). "Trump announces total economic embargo against Venezuela". CNN. Archived from the original on 6 August 2019. Retrieved 6 August 2019.
  141. ^ "Nicolás Maduro Moros and 14 Current and Former Venezuelan Officials Charged with Narco-Terrorism, Corruption, Drug Trafficking and Other Criminal Charges". www.justice.gov. 26 March 2020. Archived from the original on 26 March 2020. Retrieved 26 March 2020.
  142. ^ Turkewitz, Julie; Kurmanaev, Anatoly (19 June 2020). "A Knock, Then Gone: Venezuela Secretly Detains Hundreds to Silence Critics". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 19 June 2020. Retrieved 1 October 2020.
  143. ^ "Enforced Disappearance Tool Political Repression Venezuela". Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights. 2020. Archived from the original on 29 September 2020. Retrieved 1 October 2020.
  144. ^ "Líder da oposição nas pesquisas, María Corina Machado é inabilitada por 15 anos na Venezuela". O Globo (in Brazilian Portuguese). 30 June 2023. Archived from the original on 23 August 2024. Retrieved 31 July 2024.
  145. ^ "Venezuela's Supreme Court disqualifies opposition leader from running for president". 27 January 2024. Archived from the original on 23 August 2024. Retrieved 31 July 2024.
  146. ^ Jones, Sam (29 July 2024). "'Hard to believe': Venezuela election result met with suspicion abroad". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 23 August 2024. Retrieved 29 July 2024.
  147. ^ "Leaders across Americas react to Venezuela election results". Reuters. Retrieved 29 July 2024.
  148. ^ Schmidt, Samantha; Sands, Leo; Herrero, Vanessa (29 July 2024). "World leaders cast doubt on Maduro's claim of victory in Venezuelan election". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 29 July 2024. Retrieved 29 July 2024.
  149. ^ "Informe del Departamento para la Cooperación y Observación Electoral (DECO) de la Secretaría para el Fortalecimiento de la Democracia de la OEA sobre la elección presidencial de Venezuela para el Secretario General Luis Almagro" [Report of the Department for Electoral Cooperation and Observation (DECO) of the Secretariat for the Strengthening of Democracy of the OAS on the presidential election of Venezuela for the Secretary General Luis Almagro] (PDF) (in Spanish). Organization of American States. 30 July 2024. Wikidata d:Q128129159. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 July 2024. Retrieved 10 August 2024.
  150. ^ "Informacion de Centros y mesas de votacion". resultadospresidencialesvenezuela2024.com. Archived from the original on 7 August 2024. Retrieved 11 August 2024.
  151. ^ "Cómo acceder a la página web para verificar las actas electorales que Maduro bloqueó en Venezuela". La Patilla (in Spanish). 30 July 2024. Archived from the original on 16 August 2024. Retrieved 11 August 2024.
  152. ^ Vyas, Kejal; Dubé, Ryan (30 July 2024). "Venezuela's Opposition Releases Election Database; Claims Big Victory Over Strongman Maduro". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 30 July 2024. Retrieved 30 July 2024. The Venezuelan opposition has moved to show concrete evidence that the election was stolen. ... The opposition said it had collected data from 73% of the country's voting stations on its own and compiled it in a publicly accessible database on Tuesday. Using their national identification, Venezuelans can sign in and review a scanned tally sheet from their voting station showing how many votes went to each candidate. ... 'I found mine, the proof is there,' said Celina Ramirez, an opposition supporter who said she was able to log into the website to locate the tally sheet from her east Caracas voting center, which she said showed González receiving the lion's share of votes. 'There's no way the regime can fool everyone with their tricks,' she added ... The Carter Center, one of the few international organizations invited to monitor the elections, has urged Venezuela's government to release comprehensive polling data at the local level, which is needed to assess the electoral process. ...The opposition hopes the release of the database will increase pressure on Maduro's autocratic regime to make public the detailed results of the election. Also available from MSN Archived 23 August 2024 at the Wayback Machine.
  153. ^ a b "Country Profile: Venezuela" (PDF). Library of Congress (Federal Research Division). 2005. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
  154. ^ Warhol 2006, p. 65.
  155. ^ "Gobierno en Línea: Geografía, Clima". gobiernoenlinea.ve. 2009. Archived from the original on 3 March 2006. Retrieved 27 January 2009.
  156. ^ "The Alpine Biome". marietta.edu. Archived from the original on 19 January 2010. Retrieved 19 December 2009.
  157. ^ "Extreme High Temperature in Venezuela". wunderground. Archived from the original on 20 September 2014. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
  158. ^ "Extreme Low Temp in Venezuela". Wunderground. Archived from the original on 6 July 2013. Retrieved 16 October 2012. NOTE: Pass the cursor over the subrayed record to see the source of this. "This location is probably uninhabited, but is close to the town of San Isidro de Apartaderos. −11 °C (12 °F) has been reported from an uninhabited high altitude at Páramo de Piedras Blancas, Mérida state."
  159. ^ "South America Banks on Regional Strategy to Safeguard Quarter of Earth's Biodiversity". Conservation International. 16 September 2003. Archived from the original on 4 October 2003.
  160. ^ a b c Dydynski & Beech 2004, p. 42.
  161. ^ Lepage, Denis. "Checklist of birds of Venezuela". Bird Checklists of the World. Avibase. Archived from the original on 22 May 2011. Retrieved 4 May 2007.
  162. ^ a b Bevilacqua, M; Cardenas, L; Flores, AL; et al. (2002). "State of Venezuela's forests: A case study of the Guayana Region". World Resources Institute. Archived from the original on 15 February 2009. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
  163. ^ Dennis, R.W.G. "Fungus Flora of Venezuela and Adjacent Countries". Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1970
  164. ^ "Cybertruffle's Robigalia – Observations of fungi and their associated organisms". cybertruffle.org.uk. Archived from the original on 29 December 2018. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
  165. ^ Georgia Country Study Guide Volume 1 Strategic Information and Developments 2013, p. 36.
  166. ^ a b c "Venezuela: Overview". Global Forest Watch. Archived from the original on 8 December 2006. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
  167. ^ Jowers, M., & Downie, J. (2004). Distribution of the frog Mannophryne trinitatis (Anura: Dendrobatidae) in Trinidad, West Indies. Living World, 2004.
  168. ^ "Fungi of Venezuela – potential endemics". cybertruffle.org.uk. Archived from the original on 27 March 2012. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
  169. ^ Grantham, H.S.; et al. (2020). "Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material". Nature Communications. 11 (1). 5978. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.5978G. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7723057. PMID 33293507. S2CID 228082162.
  170. ^ Peck, D (2000). "The Annotated Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance: Venezuela". The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. Ramsar Convention Secretariat. Archived from the original on 11 February 2007. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
  171. ^ "Biodiversity and Protected Areas—Venezuela" (PDF). EarthTrends Country Profiles. World Resources Institute. 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 July 2007. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
  172. ^ Jafé, Espiño, Benítez, Gardinali (1995): Pollution chronology of Lake Valencia, Venezuela. Springer Verlag. New York Inc.
  173. ^ Carbon Markets Are Making a Slow, But Steady, Comeback Archived 2 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Bloomberg.com (8 December 2015). Retrieved on 15 June 2016.
  174. ^ INDC – Submissions Archived 13 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine. .unfccc.int. Retrieved on 15 June 2016.
  175. ^ Keith, D.A.; et al. (2013). "Scientific Foundations for an IUCN Red List of Ecosystems". PLOS ONE. 8 (5): e62111. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...862111K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0062111. PMC 3648534. PMID 23667454.
  176. ^ "Assessments". UCN Red List of Ecosystems. IUCN-CEM. Archived from the original on 22 September 2018. Retrieved 22 September 2018.
  177. ^ Rodríguez, J.P.; Nassar, J.M.; Rodríguez-Clark, K.M.; Zager, I.; Portillo-Quintero, C.A.; Carrasquel, F.; Zambrano, S. (2009). "Tropical dry forests in Venezuela: assessing status, threats and future prospects". Environmental Conservation. 35 (4): 311. doi:10.1017/S0376892908005237 (inactive 22 September 2024). ISSN 0376-8929. S2CID 85838371.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (link)
  178. ^ Anuario estadístico de Venezuela (in Spanish). OCEI. 2000. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. Retrieved 7 November 2020.
  179. ^ Kaplan, Joanna Overing (1975). The Piaroa, a People of the Orinoco Basin: A Study in Kinship and Marriage. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-01-923189-3. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. Retrieved 7 November 2020.
  180. ^ Affairs (U.S.), Institute of Inter-American; Peterson, Lyall E. (1946). The Lake Valencia Region in Venezuela: A Special Report. Institute of Inter-American Affairs, Food Supply Division. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. Retrieved 7 November 2020.
  181. ^ Yegres, Ramón Santaella (1989). La dinámica del espacio en la cuenca del Lago de Maracaibo, 1873-1940: y su proyeccion hasta el presente, 1980 (in Spanish). FACES-UCV, División de Publicaciones. ISBN 978-980-00-0312-1. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. Retrieved 7 November 2020.
  182. ^ a b Cárdenas, Antonio Luis; Castillo, Rubén Carpio (2000). Geografía de Venezuela (in Spanish). Fondo Editorial de la Universidad Pedagógica Experimental Libertador. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. Retrieved 14 August 2021.
  183. ^ Figueroa, Rosa (1995). Agenda Geografica Venezuela (in Spanish). Editorial Alfa. ISBN 978-980-354-005-0. Archived from the original on 6 November 2022. Retrieved 6 November 2022.
  184. ^ a b Carter, Douglas Broadmore (1946). "The Water Balance of the Lake Maracaibo Basin". Archived from the original on 6 November 2022. Retrieved 25 December 2020.
  185. ^ a b Nwachukwu, Joseph Iheanacho (1981). "Organic Geochemistry of the Orinoco Delta, Venezuela". Archived from the original on 6 November 2022. Retrieved 25 December 2020.
  186. ^ a b Hammond, D. S. (2005). Tropical Forests of the Guiana Shield. ISBN 978-1-84593-092-9. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. Retrieved 25 December 2020.
  187. ^ Sojo, Raúl; Castillo, Horacio Biord (2009). Venezuela al natural. Editorial Arte. ISBN 978-980-6476-26-4. Archived from the original on 6 November 2022. Retrieved 14 August 2021.
  188. ^ Las Microfacies Del Cretaceo de Venezuela Occidental (in Spanish). Brill Archive. Archived from the original on 6 November 2022. Retrieved 14 June 2021.
  189. ^ Socorro, Orangel Antonio Aguilera (2006). Tesoros paleontológicos de Venezuela: el cuaternario del Estado Falcón (in Spanish). Ministerio de la Cultura. ISBN 978-980-12-1379-6. Archived from the original on 6 November 2022. Retrieved 14 June 2021.
  190. ^ Páez, Ramón (1863). "Wild Scenes in South America". Archived from the original on 6 November 2022. Retrieved 25 December 2020.
  191. ^ Rojas, Arístides (1897). Primer libro de geografía de Venezuela según Codazzi (in Spanish). Santana y cia. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. Retrieved 7 June 2021.
  192. ^ a b c Zinck, Alfred. "Valles de Venezuela" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 June 2021. Retrieved 7 June 2021.
  193. ^ A, América Bracho (1984). Geografía de Venezuela: III año (in Spanish). Ediciones CO-BO. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. Retrieved 14 August 2021.
  194. ^ The Latin America & Caribbean Review. World of Information. 1986. ISBN 9780904439557. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. Retrieved 14 August 2021.
  195. ^ Baño, Adrián Hernández (1986). Secretos de los Médanos de Coro (in Spanish). Instituto de Cultura del Estado Falcón. ISBN 978-980-6081-09-3. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. Retrieved 25 June 2021.
  196. ^ Salazar-Quijada, Adolfo (1971). Toponimia de la Guajira venezolana (in Spanish). Universidad Católica Andrés Bello, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, Seminario de Lenguas Indígenas. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. Retrieved 25 June 2021.
  197. ^ Colombo-Venezolanos, Venezuela Comisión Presidencial para Asuntos Fronterizos (1993). Apure: diagnostico y estrategias de desarrollo fronterizo (in Spanish). La Comisión. ISBN 978-980-03-0130-2. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. Retrieved 14 August 2021.
  198. ^ Hidrocarburos, Venezuela Ministerio de Minas e (1962). Memoria - Ministerio de Minas e Hidrocarburos (in Spanish). El Ministerio. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. Retrieved 14 August 2021.
  199. ^ Léidenz, Misael Salazar (2001). Venezuela en la magia, el mito y la leyenda (in Spanish). Editorial Guaraira Repano. ISBN 978-980-07-8548-5. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. Retrieved 14 August 2021.
  200. ^ "Ley Orgánica de Procesos Electorales" (in Spanish). Consejo Nacional Electoral. Archived from the original on 29 September 2010. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
  201. ^ "Dos mil 719 candidatos se disputarán los curules de la Asamblea Nacional" (in Spanish). Venezolana de Televisión. 10 June 2010. Archived from the original on 10 May 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
  202. ^ Frankal, Elliot (4 July 2005). "Compulsory voting around the world". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 10 October 2008. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
  203. ^ "Luisa Estela Morales afirma que la división de poderes debilita al Estado" (in Spanish). El Informador. 5 December 2009. Archived from the original on 25 March 2010. Retrieved 16 January 2010.
  204. ^ Based on the result of the 2011 Census according to the Instituto Nacional de Estadisca
  205. ^ "Protestas aumentan 278% en primer semestre 2014". LaPatilla.com (in Spanish). 17 July 2014. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 9 April 2015.
  206. ^ Milne, Seumas. "Venezuela protests are sign that US wants our oil, says Nicolás Maduro". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 11 August 2021. Retrieved 9 April 2015.
  207. ^ "Nicolás Maduro: 'Impediré por las buenas o por las malas que la oposición llegue al poder'". La Prensa (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 21 March 2016. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
  208. ^ a b "La designación de magistrados del TSJ por la AN. ¿Fraude Constitucional?". ProDavinci.com. Archived from the original on 21 August 2016. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
  209. ^ a b "Designaciones de magistrados son un fraude a la Constitución". La razón (in Spanish). 22 December 2015. Archived from the original on 4 June 2016. Retrieved 15 May 2016.
  210. ^ a b "Designación de magistrados obvió fase de impugnación". El Nacional (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 8 May 2016. Retrieved 15 May 2016.
  211. ^ "Por qué importan tanto los magistrados que designó el chavismo en Venezuela". BBC.com (in Spanish). 23 December 2015. Archived from the original on 18 March 2016. Retrieved 15 May 2016.
  212. ^ a b "Designación de magistrados del TSJ en Vzla es un "flagrante fraude" a la Constitución". NTN24 (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 16 June 2016. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
  213. ^ a b Lansberg-Rodriguez, Daniel (2 April 2017). "Venezuela's broken system". The Financial Times. p. 11. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2017.
  214. ^ "El Supremo suspende la proclamación de tres diputados opositores y uno chavista". elmundo.es (in Spanish). Unidad Editorial. 31 December 2015. Archived from the original on 4 June 2016. Retrieved 15 May 2016.
  215. ^ "Maduro pide al TSJ declarar 'inconstitucional' la Ley de Amnistía". El Estímulo (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 9 April 2016. Retrieved 15 May 2016.
  216. ^ "Decreto de emergencia económica no puede pasar del 12 de mayo". El Nacional (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 10 June 2016. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
  217. ^ "Nicolás Maduro decreta un nuevo Estado de Excepción y de Emergencia Económica en Venezuela". BBC.com. 14 May 2016. p. Spanish. Archived from the original on 15 May 2016. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
  218. ^ "Prorroga del Decreto Emergencia Económica es inconstitucional". El Nuevo País (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 5 June 2016. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
  219. ^ "La ruptura democrática de Venezuela". RunRunes.es (in Spanish). 14 May 2016. Archived from the original on 15 May 2016. Retrieved 15 May 2016.
  220. ^ "La dictadura venezolana invitó al podemita que irá a la cárcel por pegar a un socialista". OK Diario (in Spanish). 30 March 2016. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 15 May 2016.
  221. ^ "La dictadura venezolana reafirma su naturaleza". Eju.tv (in Spanish). 18 April 2016. Archived from the original on 1 May 2016. Retrieved 15 May 2016.
  222. ^ "Expresidentes denuncian ruptura del orden constitucional y democrático en Venezuela". Venezuela al día (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 14 May 2016. Retrieved 15 May 2016.
  223. ^ "Opositores denuncian 'ruptura del orden constitucional' en Venezuela". El País (in Spanish). 11 May 2016. Archived from the original on 12 May 2016. Retrieved 15 May 2016.
  224. ^ "Venezuela es una dictadura que no representa la división de poderes". El Salvador (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 30 May 2016. Retrieved 15 May 2016.
  225. ^ "Jefe de la OEA estudia invocar Carta Democrática por Venezuela". La Prensa (in Spanish). 29 April 2016. Archived from the original on 2 May 2016. Retrieved 15 May 2016.
  226. ^ "Venezuela 'coup': Alarm grows as court takes power". BBC.co.uk. 3 March 2017. Archived from the original on 13 December 2017. Retrieved 31 March 2017.
  227. ^ "Venezuela: Supreme court backtracks on powers bid". BBC.co.uk. 1 April 2017. Archived from the original on 1 April 2017. Retrieved 1 April 2017.
  228. ^ "U.S. declares Venezuela a national security threat, sanctions top officials". Reuters. 9 March 2015. Archived from the original on 15 April 2015. Retrieved 26 April 2015.
  229. ^ "Latin American Herald Tribune – US Announces New Executive Order Sanctions on Venezuela – Declares "National Emergency"". Archived from the original on 25 March 2015. Retrieved 26 April 2015.
  230. ^ "Amid deteriorating relations, Washington turns screws on Venezuela". miamiherald. Archived from the original on 6 April 2015. Retrieved 26 April 2015.
  231. ^ Political Risk Yearbook: South America. Frost & Sullivan. 1999. p. 34. ISBN 978-1-931077-59-0. Venezuela worked closely with its neighbors following the 1997 Summit of the Americas in many areas—particularly energy integration—and championed the OAS decision to adopt an Anti-Corruption Convention.
  232. ^ "Venezuela to withdraw from OAS as deadly protests continue". BBC News. 2 April 2017. Archived from the original on 27 April 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2017.
  233. ^ "Venezuela says it will quit Organization of American States". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 27 April 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2017.
  234. ^ Overland, Indra; Bazilian, Morgan; Ilimbek Uulu, Talgat; Vakulchuk, Roman; Westphal, Kirsten (2019). "The GeGaLo index: Geopolitical gains and losses after energy transition". Energy Strategy Reviews. 26: 100406. Bibcode:2019EneSR..2600406O. doi:10.1016/j.esr.2019.100406. hdl:11250/2634876.
  235. ^ "Observatorio Venezolano de Violencia". Observatorio Venezolano de Violencia. Archived from the original on 16 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014.
  236. ^ Rueda, Manuel (8 January 2014). "How Did Venezuela Become So Violent?n". Fusion TV. Archived from the original on 31 December 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014.
  237. ^ a b "GLOBAL STUDY ON HOMICIDE 2011" (PDF). UNODC. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 16 December 2014.
  238. ^ a b "GLOBAL STUDY ON HOMICIDE 2014" (PDF). UNODC. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 July 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2014.
  239. ^ "Global homicide rates drop, but nearly 500,000 murdered in 2012". Agence France-Presse. 10 December 2014. Archived from the original on 6 November 2018. Retrieved 16 December 2014.
  240. ^ "SeguridadPúblicayPrivada VenezuelayBolivia" (PDF). Oas.org. August 2009. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2015.
  241. ^ "Venezuela: Gravísima Crisis de Seguridad Pública by Lexys Rendon". ISSUU.com. 12 September 2011. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2015.
  242. ^ "Según el Cicpc el 2011 cerró con 1.150 secuestros en todo el país – Sucesos". Eluniversal.com. 4 January 2012. Archived from the original on 8 January 2012. Retrieved 30 March 2015.
  243. ^ Castillo, Mariano (9 January 2014). "Beauty queen's killers nabbed, Venezuela says". CNN. Archived from the original on 21 February 2014. Retrieved 10 January 2014.
  244. ^ Gallegos, Raul (10 January 2014). "Miss Venezuela's Murder Is the Price of Politics". Bloomberg.com. Archived from the original on 27 January 2014. Retrieved 10 January 2014.
  245. ^ Rueda, Manuel. "How Did Venezuela Become So Violent?". Fusion. Archived from the original on 10 January 2014. Retrieved 10 January 2014.
  246. ^ Davies, Wyre (20 February 2016). "Venezuela's decline fuelled by plunging oil prices". BBC News, Latin America. Archived from the original on 21 February 2016. Retrieved 20 February 2016.
  247. ^ "Venezuela Country Specific Information". United States Department of State. Archived from the original on 11 January 2014. Retrieved 10 January 2014.
  248. ^ "Crime threatens Chavez vote in Venezuela slums". Uk.reuters.com. 14 November 2008. Archived from the original on 15 January 2010. Retrieved 25 April 2010.
  249. ^ "14 Killed in Caracas anti-crime operation". Fox News. 13 July 2015. Archived from the original on 17 July 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
  250. ^ a b Finnegan, William (1 November 2016). "Venezuela, A Failing State". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 25 September 2019. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
  251. ^ "Venezuela". United States Department of State. Archived from the original on 3 July 2015. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
  252. ^ "Venezuela Travel Warning". United States Department of State. Archived from the original on 30 January 2014. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
  253. ^ "Venezuela". Government of Canada. 16 November 2012. Archived from the original on 1 May 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
  254. ^ "FCO travel advice mapped: the world according to Britain's diplomats". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 24 June 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
  255. ^ "Venezuelan Soap Star Monica Spear Slain with Ex-Husband". NBC News. 8 January 2014. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2014.
  256. ^ Cawthorne, Andrew (7 February 2014). "German tourist, 76, shot dead on Venezuelan island". Reuters. Archived from the original on 14 February 2014. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
  257. ^ "20 killed in Venezuelan prison violence". CNN.com. Archived from the original on 28 September 2018. Retrieved 25 November 2012.
  258. ^ Silverstein, Amy (20 August 2012). "Venezuela prison riot kills 20". Global Post. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 21 August 2012.
  259. ^ "World Report 2017: Rights Trends in Venezuela". Human Rights Watch. 12 January 2017. Archived from the original on 11 May 2022. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
  260. ^ "Democracy Index 2012". www.eiu.com. Archived from the original on 19 May 2020. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
  261. ^ "Democracy Index 2017" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 August 2018. Retrieved 5 April 2021.
  262. ^ McBeth 2002, p. 17. "From 1917, greater awareness of the country's oil potential had the pernicious effect of increasing the corruption and intrigue amongst Gomez's family and entourage, the consequences of which would be felt up to 1935."
  263. ^ Coronil 1988, p. 353. "The perception of petroleum as the cause of Venezuela's corruption had become widespread during this period."
  264. ^ The truth of Pdval Archived 14 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine, El Universal, 21 January 2011.
  265. ^ e.V., Transparency International (31 January 2023). "Transparency International – Venezuela". www.transparency.org. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 3 October 2017.
  266. ^ "WJP Rule of Law Index™ 2014". Archived from the original on 29 April 2015. Retrieved 26 April 2015.
  267. ^ United Nations, World Drug Report 2010 Statistical Annex: Drug seizures Archived 10 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  268. ^ "Venezuela: Where The Mafia And The Military Come Together". Fox News. 7 February 2014. Archived from the original on 8 February 2014. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
  269. ^ "Venezuela's election: More Maduro or a new democratic era?". CBC. 25 July 2024. Archived from the original on 25 July 2024. Retrieved 25 July 2024.
  270. ^ Bishop, Holly (27 July 2024). "Venezuela 'on brink of civil war' as Putin-ally warns of 'BLOODBATH' if he loses crunch vote". GB News. Archived from the original on 23 August 2024. Retrieved 28 July 2024.
  271. ^ France-Presse, Agence (27 July 2024). "Concern grows as Venezuela blocks election observers". Voice of America. Archived from the original on 23 August 2024. Retrieved 27 July 2024.
  272. ^ "The Economy Of Venezuela". WorldAtlas. 25 April 2017. Archived from the original on 1 January 2024. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
  273. ^ "Is socialism to blame for Venezuela's never-ending crisis?". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 25 April 2020. Retrieved 19 March 2020.
  274. ^ "What socialism? Private sector still dominates Venezuelan economy despite Chavez crusade". Fox News. Associated Press. 18 July 2010. Archived from the original on 26 February 2020. Retrieved 19 March 2020.
  275. ^ "Venezuela: Gold Returns to the Country, The Euphoria in the Streets". 26 November 2011. Archived from the original on 21 October 2013.
  276. ^ Pons, Corina; Corina, Nathan (9 August 2013). "Venezuela Ogles Chavez's Hidden Billions as Reserves Sink". Bloomberg.com. Archived from the original on 23 October 2013. Retrieved 19 October 2013.
  277. ^ "Resultados del Índice Nacional de Precios Al Consumidor, Producto Interno Bruto y Balanza de Pagos Cuarto Trimestre De 2015" (PDF) (in Spanish). BCV. 18 February 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 December 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2017.
  278. ^ Corina Pons (20 January 2017). "UPDATE 1-Venezuela 2016 inflation hits 800 pct, GDP contracts nearly 19 pct". REUTERS. Archived from the original on 2 March 2017. Retrieved 14 May 2017.
  279. ^ Kelly & Palma 2006, p. 207.
  280. ^ "The Millennium Development Goals Report 2011". Archived 9 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine United Nations. 2011. Web. 2 April 2012.
  281. ^ Gallagher, J. J. (25 March 2015). "Venezuela: Does an increase in poverty signal threat to government?". The Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on 21 January 2020. Retrieved 29 March 2015.
  282. ^ Corrales, Javier (7 May 2015). "Don't Blame It On the Oil". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 27 November 2015. Retrieved 10 May 2015.
  283. ^ "UN Congratulates Venezuela on Hunger". ABC News. 18 June 2013. Archived from the original on 21 July 2015. Retrieved 18 July 2015.
  284. ^ Cawthorne, Andrew (24 October 2014). "Venezuela seizes warehouses packed with medical goods, food". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2 July 2015. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
  285. ^ "Venezuela to nationalize food distribution". Archived from the original on 4 May 2015. Retrieved 6 May 2015.
  286. ^ "Facing shortages, Venezuela takes over toilet paper factory". CNN. 21 September 2013. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 14 December 2013.
  287. ^ Bases, Daniel (14 December 2013). "Update – S&P cuts Venezuela debt rating to B-minus". Reuters. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 14 December 2013.
  288. ^ "Venezuela 2016 inflation hits 800 percent, GDP shrinks 19 percent". CNBC. 20 January 2017. Archived from the original on 29 April 2017. Retrieved 7 May 2017.
  289. ^ Rosati, Andrew (11 January 2017). "Venezuela's Awful Economy Got Even Worse in 2016". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 17 January 2017. Retrieved 10 January 2019.
  290. ^ Bartenstein, Ben; et al. (1 November 2017). "Venezuela's Bondholder Meeting Is a Bust as S&P Declares Default". Bloomberg.com. Archived from the original on 14 November 2017. Retrieved 15 November 2017.
  291. ^ "Rating: Venezuela Credit Rating". Archived from the original on 14 December 2013. Retrieved 14 December 2013.
  292. ^ "IMF projects Venezuela inflation will hit 1,000,000 percent in 2018". Reuters. 2 July 2018. Archived from the original on 23 August 2018. Retrieved 24 July 2018.
  293. ^ Brushaber, Susan; Greenberg, Arnold (1997). Venezuela Alive. Hunter Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-1-55650-800-4. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. Retrieved 7 November 2020.
  294. ^ Mann, Mark (2014). The Community Tourism Guide: Exciting Holidays for Responsible Travellers. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-85466-1. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. Retrieved 7 November 2020.
  295. ^ Dagert, Domingo Alberto Medina (1993). Community Perceptions and Attitudes Toward Tourism: "Los Aleros" Merida, Venezuela. Michigan State University. Department of Park and Recreation Resources. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
  296. ^ a b "Venezuela's currency: The not-so-strong bolívar". The Economist. 11 February 2013. Archived from the original on 3 May 2019. Retrieved 18 February 2013.
  297. ^ "Venezuela's black market rate for US dollars just jumped by almost 40%". Quartz. 26 March 2014. Archived from the original on 13 April 2019. Retrieved 27 March 2014.
  298. ^ Dulaney, Chelsey; Vyas, Kejal (16 September 2014). "S&P Downgrades Venezuela on Worsening Economy Rising Inflation, Economic Pressures Prompt Rating Cut". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 18 September 2014. Retrieved 18 September 2014.
  299. ^ "La escasez también frena tratamientos contra cáncer" (in Spanish). Venezuela. Archived from the original on 26 August 2014. Retrieved 25 August 2014.
  300. ^ "Venezuela sufre escasez de prótesis mamarias" (in Spanish). El Nuevo Herald. Archived from the original on 26 August 2014. Retrieved 25 August 2014.
  301. ^ "Why are Venezuelans posting pictures of empty shelves?". BBC. 8 January 2015. Archived from the original on 29 April 2023. Retrieved 10 January 2015.
  302. ^ Cawthorne, Andrew (21 January 2015). "In shortages-hit Venezuela, lining up becomes a profession". Reuters. Archived from the original on 15 November 2015. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
  303. ^ MacDonald, Elizabeth (26 May 2016). "Exclusive: Harrowing Video Shows Starving Venezuelans Eating Garbage, Looting". Fox Business. Archived from the original on 7 July 2016. Retrieved 12 July 2016.
  304. ^ Sanchez, Fabiola (8 June 2016). "As hunger mounts, Venezuelans turn to trash for food". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 31 March 2017. Retrieved 12 July 2016.
  305. ^ "Mangoes fill the gaps in Venezuela's food crisis". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 7 June 2016. Archived from the original on 2 January 2023. Retrieved 12 July 2016.
  306. ^ Venezuela Announces Daily 4-Hour Power Cuts Amid Drought : The Two-Way Archived 28 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine. NPR (22 April 2016). Retrieved on 15 June 2016.
  307. ^ Venezuela Cuts Public Employees' Workweek To 2 Days To Save Energy : The Two-Way Archived 28 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine. NPR (27 April 2016). Retrieved on 15 June 2016.
  308. ^ Pestano, Andrew V. (19 February 2017). "Venezuela: 75% of population lost 19 pounds amid crisis". UPI. Archived from the original on 10 May 2019. Retrieved 21 February 2017.
  309. ^ Suarez, Roberth (22 March 2017). "Fotos: Escasez de gasolina se agudiza en Barquisimeto". El Impulso (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 22 March 2017. Retrieved 23 March 2017.
  310. ^ a b "Venezuela – U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)". www.eia.gov. 30 November 2020. Archived from the original on 20 February 2022. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
  311. ^ "Venezuela Energy Profile". Archived from the original on 15 December 2010. Retrieved 15 December 2010., Energy Information Administration. Last Update: 30 June 2010.
  312. ^ Venezuela oil reserves topped Saudis in 2010:OPEC Archived 12 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Market Watch. 18 July 2011
  313. ^ "Venezuela: Energy overview". BBC. 16 February 2006. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
  314. ^ Bauquis, Pierre-René (16 February 2006). "What the future for extra heavy oil and bitumen: the Orinoco case". World Energy Council. Archived from the original on 2 April 2007. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
  315. ^ Yergin 1991, pp. 233–236, 432.
  316. ^ Yergin 1991, pp. 510–513.
  317. ^ Yergin 1991, p. 767.
  318. ^ López Maya, Margarita (2004). "Venezuela 2001–2004: actores y estrategias". Cuadernos del Cendes. 21 (56): 109–132. ISSN 1012-2508. Archived from the original on 17 November 2006. Retrieved 3 October 2010.
  319. ^ Han Shih, Toh (11 April 2013). "China Railway Group's project in Venezuela hits snag". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 18 April 2013. Retrieved 14 December 2013.
  320. ^ Country Comparison :: Roadways Archived 3 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine. The World Factbook. cia.gov
  321. ^ "Coastal and Marine Ecosystems—Venezuela" (PDF). EarthTrends Country Profiles. World Resources Institute. 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 March 2007. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
  322. ^ "Cuadro Magnitud y Estructura Demográfica". Ine.gob.ve. Archived from the original on 29 September 2011. Retrieved 25 April 2010.
  323. ^ "World Population Prospects 2022". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
  324. ^ "World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100" (XSLX) ("Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)"). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
  325. ^ a b Maria Delgado, Antonio (28 August 2014). "Venezuela agobiada por la fuga masiva de cerebros". El Nuevo Herald. Archived from the original on 27 August 2014. Retrieved 28 August 2014.
  326. ^ a b "El 90% de los venezolanos que se van tienen formación universitaria". El Impulso. 23 August 2014. Archived from the original on 17 October 2015. Retrieved 28 August 2014.
  327. ^ Benítez, Deivis (2011) [Updated 13 August 2012]. "Poblaciones Indígenas en aumento según censo poblacional 2011" (in Spanish). PRENSA MINPPPI. Archived from the original on 16 January 2013. Retrieved 10 October 2012.

    Los resultados arrojados por el censo poblacional realizado por el Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas en el 2011 demuestra que las poblaciones indígenas ha aumentado progresivamente con respecto al censo del año 2001.

    Según los datos estadísticos publicados por el INE, el total de población que se declaró indígena por sexo, arrojó un resultado de 50,46% hombre y 49,54% mujeres representando 365.920 hombres y 359.208 mujeres para un total de 725.148 personas que se declararon indígenas de Venezuela.

    Así mismo, se tomó el porcentaje de población por entidad donde el estado Zulia es la entidad con más indígenas con un 61%, seguido del estado Amazonas con 10%, Bolívar con un 8%, Delta Amacuro con 6%, Anzoátegui 5%, Sucre 3%, Apure y Monagas 2% mientras que en otras entidades existe un 3% de población indígena.

    Entre tanto, los pueblos indígenas con mayor población se encuentran los Wayuu 58%, Warao 7%, Kariña 5%, Pemón 4%, Piaroa, Jivi, Añu, Cumanágoto 3%, Yukpa, Chaima 2%, el pueblo Yanomami 1% y otros pueblos con un 9%.

  328. ^ Godinho, Neide Maria de Oliveira (2008). "O impacto das migrações na constituição genética de populações latino-americanas" (PDF). Universidade de Brasília. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 1 August 2012.
  329. ^ "The Spanish of the Canary Islands". personal.psu.edu. Archived from the original on 20 March 2012. Retrieved 13 March 2012.
  330. ^ "Ministerio de Trabajo y Economía Social". www.mites.gob.es. Archived from the original on 29 April 2023. Retrieved 22 December 2022.
  331. ^ Erichsen, Gerald. "Facts About Venezuela for Spanish Students". About. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
  332. ^ "Gran Canaria Culture". GranCanariaInfo. Archived from the original on 24 June 2015. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
  333. ^ "History". Sazon Latino Restaurant. Archived from the original on 29 May 2015. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
  334. ^ Calder, Simon (31 October 2014). "Secret Canaries: Explore these warm volcanic islands all year round". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 11 August 2022. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
  335. ^ Ross, Ben; Calder, Simon (5 December 2009). "Tale of Two Travellers: The two sides of the Canaries". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
  336. ^ a b Romero, Simon (7 November 2010). "In Venezuela, a New Wave of Foreigners". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 February 2016. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
  337. ^ a b Padilla, Beatriz; Peixoto, Joāo (28 June 2007). "Latin American Immigration to Southern Europe". Migration Policy. Archived from the original on 22 June 2015. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
  338. ^ a b c Brooke, James (17 February 1992). "Latin America Offers 'New World' to East Europe Emigrants". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 26 May 2015. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
  339. ^ "World Refugee Survey 2008". U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants. 19 June 2008. Archived from the original on 29 April 2009.
  340. ^ Venezuela – Population Archived 12 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine. U.S. Library of Congress.
  341. ^ > Censos de población y vivienda Archived 19 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine. INE (23 February 2012). Retrieved on 16 April 2012.
  342. ^ a b "Venezuela". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 4 April 2022. Retrieved 23 January 2017.
  343. ^ Bernasconi, Giulia (2012). "L'Italiano in Venezuela". Italiano LinguaDue (in Italian). 3 (2): 20. doi:10.13130/2037-3597/1921. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 22 January 2017. L'italiano come lingua acquisita o riacquisita è largamente diffuso in Venezuela: recenti studi stimano circa 200.000 studenti di italiano nel Paese
  344. ^ "What Languages Are Spoken in Venezuela?". WorldAtlas. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
  345. ^ Maddicks, Russell (1 October 2012). Venezuela – Culture Smart!: The Essential Guide to Customs & Culture. Kuperard. ISBN 978-1-85733-661-0.
  346. ^ Ferreira, Jo-Anne S. "Patuá in Paria: The Status of French-lexicon Creole in Venezuela (pre-published version)".
  347. ^ a b Aguire, Jesus Maria (June 2012). "Informe Sociográfico sobre la religión en Venezuela" (PDF) (in Spanish). El Centro Gumilla. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
  348. ^ a b Khalifa 2013, 6-7.
  349. ^ "As crisis deepens, more Venezuelans are emigrating to Lebanon". NBC News. 18 July 2017.
  350. ^ a b "Sending relief--and a message of inclusion and love—to our Druze sisters and brothers". Los Angeles Times. 6 April 2021.
  351. ^ "Tariq Alaiseme [reportedly to be] vice-president of Venezuela" (in Arabic). Aamama. 2013.: Referring governor Tareck El Aissami.
  352. ^ Thor Halvorssen Mendoza (8 August 2005). "Hurricane Hugo". The Weekly Standard. 10 (44). Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 20 November 2010.
  353. ^ Annual Report 2004: Venezuela. Archived 23 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine Stephen Roth Institute. Accessed 11 August 2006.
  354. ^ Berrios, Jerry. S. Fla. Venezuelans: Chavez incites anti-Semitism. Archived 6 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine Miami Herald, 10 August 2006.
  355. ^ The Chavez Regime: Fostering Anti-Semitism and Supporting Radical Islam. Archived 4 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine Anti-Defamation League, 6 November 2006. Accessed 3 April 2008.
  356. ^ Rueda, Jorge (4 December 2007). "Jewish leaders condemn police raid on community center in Venezuela". U-T San Diego. Archived from the original on 8 April 2015. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
  357. ^ "ADL Denounces Anti-Semitic Graffiti Sprayed on Synagogue in Venezuela". Algemeiner Journal. 2 January 2015. Retrieved 4 January 2015.
  358. ^ "Health Care for All: Venezuela's Health Missions at Work". Venezuela Information Office. 2007. Archived from the original on 14 June 2008. Retrieved 18 January 2008.
  359. ^ Castro, Arachu (2008). "Barrio adentro a look at the origins of a social mission". David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies, Harvard University. Archived from the original on 12 May 2009. Retrieved 29 January 2009.
  360. ^ "Cabildo Metropolitano evaluará funcionamiento de Barrio Adentro". El Universal. 6 May 2014. Retrieved 7 May 2014.
  361. ^ "Siete médicos cubanos demandan a Cuba y Venezuela por "esclavitud moderna"". Archived from the original on 18 September 2015. Retrieved 26 April 2015.
  362. ^ Vinogradoff, Ludmila (13 November 2014). "16 November 2014". ABC (Spanish). Retrieved 16 November 2014.
  363. ^ Matheus, Ricardo. Abandonados 70% de módulos de BA Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine Diario 2001 (29 July 2007).
  364. ^ "El 80% de los módulos de Barrio Adentro del país está cerrado". La Patilla. 8 December 2014. Retrieved 8 December 2014.
  365. ^ "Venezuela". Archived from the original on 18 March 2007. Retrieved 21 September 2006.. FAO.org.
  366. ^ Venezuela Archived 17 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Unicef.org.
  367. ^ Venezuela Guardian. 25 October 2006. Retrieved 20 September 2006.
  368. ^ Chávez 2004.
  369. ^ Dreier, Hannah (24 March 2015). "Mastectomies on the rise in Venezuela amid economic crisis". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 28 March 2015. Retrieved 24 March 2015.
  370. ^ UNESCO (1988). "Compendium of statistics on illiteracy" (PDF). Retrieved 10 June 2017.
  371. ^ "UIS.Stat". UNESCO INSTITUTE FOR STATISTICS. Retrieved 10 June 2017.
  372. ^ Daniel, Ortega; Rodríguez, Francisco (October 2008). "Freed from Illiteracy? A Closer Look at Venezuela's Misión Robinson Literacy Campaign". Economic Development and Cultural Change. 57 (1): 1–30. doi:10.1086/590461. S2CID 143581685.
  373. ^ a b "Human Development Report 2009 – Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)". Hdrstats.undp.org. Archived from the original on 18 February 2010. Retrieved 25 April 2010.
  374. ^ Goodman, Joshua (31 January 2014). "Venezuela's Best and Brightest Camp on Sidewalks". ABC News. Archived from the original on 9 February 2014. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
  375. ^ Arzt, E.; Orjeda, G.; Nobre, C.; Castilla, J.C.; Barañao, L.; Ribeiro, S.; Bifano, C.; Krieger, J.E.; Guerrero, P.C. (12 June 2014). "Capacity building: Architects of South American science" (PDF). Nature. 510 (7504): 209–212. doi:10.1038/510209a. PMID 24926500. S2CID 38221305. Retrieved 9 July 2014.
  376. ^ "Deserción escolar se ubica en 58% en todo el país". La Patilla (in Spanish). 1 July 2018. Retrieved 18 July 2018.
  377. ^ a b "Deserción escolar alcanza el 58% en todo el país". Contexto Diario (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 18 July 2018. Retrieved 18 July 2018.
  378. ^ Dembo, Nancy (2006). La tectónica en la obra de Carlos Raúl Villanueva: aproximación en tres tiempos (in Spanish). CDCH UCV. ISBN 978-980-00-2336-5.
  379. ^ Lucca, Rafael Arráiz (15 February 2016). Venezuela: 1498-1728: Conquista y urbanización (in Spanish). Editorial Alfa. ISBN 978-84-16687-13-8.
  380. ^ Gasparini, Graziano (1965). La arquitectura colonial en Venezuela (in Spanish). Ediciones Armitano.
  381. ^ Ojanguren, Montserrat Gárate (1990). La Real Compañía Guipuzcoana de Caracas (in Spanish). Sociedad Guipuzcoana de Ediciones y Publicaciones. ISBN 978-84-7173-156-2.
  382. ^ Gasparini, Graziano (1994). Coro: patrimonio mundial (in Spanish). Armitano. ISBN 978-980-216-125-6.
  383. ^ Montauban, Leopoldo Jahn (1990). La Colonia Tovar y su gente (in Spanish). Banco Provincial. ISBN 978-980-07-0220-8.
  384. ^ Ng 2004, p. 31.
  385. ^ a b Aponte 2008, p. 45.
  386. ^ a b c Tarver & Frederick 2006, p. 10.
  387. ^ Fichner-Ratus 2012, p. 519.
  388. ^ Silvera, Yohana (10 June 2010). "Poesía en objetos" (in Spanish). TalCualDigital. Archived from the original on 24 July 2015. Retrieved 24 July 2015.
  389. ^ "Information". Latin Trails. Archived from the original on 2 July 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2015.
  390. ^ Cortés 2013, p. 2134.
  391. ^ "Key Facts Venezuela". Turpial Travel & Adventure. Archived from the original on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 13 July 2015.
  392. ^ "Rock and MAU sonará bajo las nubes de Calder". El Universal (in Spanish). 8 December 2014. Retrieved 13 July 2015.
  393. ^ Fernández B., María Gabriela (14 March 2015). "El jazz es el lenguaje universal de la música popular". El Universal. Retrieved 13 July 2015.
  394. ^ Olsen, Dale; Sheehy, Daniel (2007). The Garland Handbook of Latin American Music. Routledge. p. 32. ISBN 978-1-135-90008-3.
  395. ^ Christie, Jan Fairley (2014). Living politics, making music : the writings of Jan Fairley. Ashgate Publishing. p. 113. ISBN 978-1-4724-1266-9.
  396. ^ Nichols & Morse 2010, p. 306.
  397. ^ a b Wardrope 2003, p. 37.
  398. ^ Jozsa 2013, p. 12.
  399. ^ a b Gibson 2006, p. 18.
  400. ^ Nichols & Morse 2010, p. 307.
  401. ^ a b Aalgaard 2004, p. 54.
  402. ^ "Copa America: a new cycle begins and the revolving calendar remains". CONMEBOL. 21 December 2007. Archived from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
  403. ^ Strickland, Jamie (12 April 2015). "Pastor Maldonado: Does 'Crashtor' deserve his bad reputation?". BBC. Retrieved 6 July 2015.
  404. ^ Montiel, Santiago. "Formula 1 needs more attention in the United States". Spartan Newsroon. Archived from the original on 6 July 2015. Retrieved 6 July 2015.
  405. ^ "Fencer Ruben Limardo returns to hero's welcome in Venezuela". NBC Olympics. 7 August 2012. Archived from the original on 7 August 2012. Retrieved 30 June 2015.

Bibliography

Articles

Books

Talks and interviews

7°N 65°W / 7°N 65°W / 7; -65